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MINNESOTA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
William H. Emmons, Director 

in cooperation with the united states geological survey 
BULLETIN Np. 14 

SURFACE FORMATIONS 

AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS OF 

THE SOUTH HALF OF MINNESOTA 

BY 

FRANK LEVERETT 

AND 

FREDERICK W. SARDESON 

WITH A CHAPTER ON 
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN MINNESOTA 

BY 
U. G. PURSSELL 




MINNEAPOLIS 
The University of Minnesota 
1919 



MINNESOTA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William H. Emmons^ Director 

in cooperation with the united states geological survey 
BULLETIN NO. 14 

SURFACE FORMATIONS 

AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS OF 

THE SOUTH HALF OF MINNESOTA 

BY 

FRANK LEVERETT 

AND 

FREDERICK W. SARDESON 

WITH A CHAPTER ON 
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN MINNESOTA 

BY 
U. G. PURSSELL 




MINNEAPOLIS 
The University of Minnesota 
1519 



•>. of D. 
JUN 20 ]9]9 






CONTENTS 

Introduction 1-4 

Chapter I. Physical features of Minnesota 5-22 

Topography of Minnesota 5-9 

General statement 5 

Altitude 6 

Relief 6 

Drainage 6 

Lakes 7 

Surface geology 10-18 

Rock areas 10 

The earthy mantle 10 

General statement 10 

Residuary material 11 

Wind deposits 11 

Glacial deposits 11 

Stream deposits 14 

Lake deposits 14 

The glacial features and their history 14 

Glacial lake features 16 

General soil conditions 18-22 

Vegetation 19 

Weathering 19 

Lime 21 

Effect of fires 21 

Chapter IL Climatic conditions 23-44 

Introduction 23-24 

General climatic conditions 24-44 

Temperature 24 

Frosts 31 

Precipitation 36 

Snowfall 40 

Winds 40 

Relative humidity 41 

Number of rainy days 41 

Sunshine 41 

Chapter III. Agricultural conditions and land classification in the 

south half of Minnesota 45~62 

General statement 45 

Driftless area 45-46 

Loess-covered pre-Wisconsin drift 46-47 



iv CONTENTS 

Old gray drift (Kansan) with little or no loess cover 47 

lowan drift over Kansan drift 47-48 

Old red drift (Illinoian) over old gray drift (Kansan) 48-49 

Young or Wisconsin red drift (Patrician ice sheet) 49-50 

Young or Wisconsin red drift (Labradorian ice sheet) 50 

Border of young gray drift (Keewatin ice sheet) in central 

Minnesota 50-51 

Border of young gray drift in southwestern Minnesota 51-52 

Moraines of southwestern Minnesota 52-53 

Moraines of southeastern Minnesota 53 

Overlap of red drift by gray drift in Grantsburg lobe 53-54 

Gray drift moraines of central Minnesota 54-55 

The great plain of the Minnesota lobe 55-5^ 

The great Red River plain 56-57 

The Lake Agassiz area 57 

Outwash sand and gravel plains 57-58 

Alluvial bottoms 58 

Farming development in Minnesota 58-60 

Rank of different crops in Minnesota 60-62 

Relation of crop values to farm investments in southern Min- 
nesota 62 

Chapter IV. Descriptions of counties 63-142 

Pine County 63-64 

Southern Aitkin County 64-65 

Kanabec County 65-66 

Mille Lacs County 66-67 

Southern Crow Wing Coimty 67-68 

Southern Cass County 68 

Morrison County 68-70 

Todd County 70-71 

Southern Otter Tail County 71-72 

Douglas County 72-73 

Grant County 73-74 

Wilkin County 74-75 

Traverse County 75-77 

Big Stone County 77-7^ 

Stevens County 78-79 

Pope County 79-8i 

Steams County 81-82 

Benton County 82-83 

Sherburne County 84-85 

Isanti County 85-86 



CONTENTS V 

Anoka County 86-87 

Chisago County 87-88 

Washington County 88-89 

Ramsey County 89-90 

Hennepin County 91-92 

Wright County 92-93 

Meeker County 93*94 

Kandiyohi County 95-96 

Swift County 96-97 

Chippewa County 97 

Lac qui Parle County 98 

Yellow Medicine County 99 

Renville County 100 

McLeod County loi 

Sibley County 101-2 

Carver County 102-3 

Scott County 103-4 

Dakota County 104-6 

Goodhue County 106-9 

09-11 
11-12 
12-13 
13-14 
14-15 
15-16 
16-17 
17-19 
19-20 
20-21 
21-22 
22-24 
24-25 
25-26 
26-27 
27-28 
28-29 
29-31 
31-32 
32-33 
33-35 
35-36 
36-37 



Rice County 

Le Sueur County. . 
Nicollet County . . . , 

Brown County 

Redwood County . . . 

Lyon County 

Lincoln County . . . . 
Pipestone County . . , 

Murray County 

Cottonwood County 
Watonwan County . . 
Blue Earth County. . 
Waseca County . . . . 

Steele County 

Dodge County 

Olmsted County . . . 
Wabasha County . . . 
Winona County . . . . 
Houston County . . . 
Fillmore County . . . . 

Mower County 

Freeborn County . . . 
Faribault County . . . 



CONTENTS 

Martin County 137-38 

Jackson County 138-39 

Nobles County 139-41 

Rock County 141-42 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Plate I. Map of the surface formations of Minnesota in pocket 

II. A. Bed of Lake Agassiz near Wheaton 

B. Grain field in bed of Lake Agassiz near Wheaton 

C. Gray drift till plain in Chisago County 58 

III. A. Cultivated red drift till plain near Foley 

B. Red drift till plain with forest near Foley 

C. Boulders on red drift till plain near Foley 62 

IV. A. Gray drift moraine north of St. Paul 

B. Red drift moraine with coating of gray drift 

north of St. Paul 90 

V. A. Wisconsin, or young red drift, moraine near 
Stillwater 

B. Old red drift moraine near Hampton 92 

VI. A. Outwash plain east of Anoka 

B. Outwash plain of gray drift west of White Bear 

C. Outwash plain with thick clayey covering north 

of St. Paul 94 

VII. A. Slope of the Coteau des Prairies near Canby. 
Gray drift moraine 

B. Eroded upland in old gray (Kansan) drift north- 

east of Zumbrota 

C. Broad valley cut in old gray (Kansan) drift 

west of Kenyon 108 

VIII. A. Loess-covered driftless area near Caledonia 

B. Valleys bordered by limestone tablelands near 

Hampton 132 

IX. A. Zumbro valley near Rochester 

B. Valley of Rollingstone River near Minnesota 

City 

C. Mississippi valley at Minnesota City 140 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
TEXT FIGURES 



Fig. 



I. 

2. 

3- 

4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 

10. 

II. 

12. 

13- 

14. 

15- 



Altitude map of Minnesota 8 

Map of glacial drifts, loess, and glacial lakes 13 

Map showing distribution of forest and prairie 20 

Map showing mean annual temperatures 25 

Map showing mean temperatures for January 27 

Map showing mean temperatures for July 28 

Map showing highest known temperatures 29 

Map showing lowest known temperatures 30 

Map showing average date of last killing frost in spring. . 32 

Map showing average date of first killing frost in autumn 33 
Map showing number of days of the average crop-growing 

season 34 

Map showing the average annual precipitation 35 

Diagram showing comparative monthly precipitation 37 

Diagram showing mean monthly rainfall and mean monthly 

temperatures at several stations 38 

Diagram showing rainfall and temperatures at St. Paul 

from 1837-1913 „ 39 



SURFACE FORMATIONS AND AGRICULTURAL 

CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTH HALF 

OF MINNESOTA 

By Frank Leverett and Frederick W. Sardeson 

INTRODUCTION 
By W. H. Emmons 

Soil is the loose unconsolidated material which nearly everywhere 
covers the surface of the earth and in which plant life may be maintained. 
It is made up of finely divided rock in which decaying vegetable matter 
and animal matter are mingled. A soil is generally in a state of change. 
It is being washed little by little to the creeks and rivers which carry it 
to the sea, where it often forms delta deposits; if no new soil formed, 
hard rock would finally be exposed instead of the loose plant-producing 
soil. But rocks at and near the surface are continually changing and 
new soil is being formed from the underlying rock or from loose clayey 
or gravelly material that may constitute the subsoil, or from bowldery 
material that at many places in Minnesota lies between the hard rock 
and the soil. 

Water and air attack rock matter and break it down. Heat and cold, 
freezing and thawing, shatter the rocks and give plants an opportunity 
to send roots into the cracks that are formed, and these, prying the rocks 
apart, reduce them to particles of still smaller size. Even the hard solid 
rocks are ultimately broken down; a building of good solid stone may 
crumble in a few hundred years, especially in a moist climate. 

Some of the rocky matter is dissolved by the water and carried to the 
sea in solution. It is such dissolved material that makes water "hard" 
and that gathers in the bottom of a vessel when water is boiled. But 
not all of the soluble substances are dissolved and carried away ; some 
remain in the soil, and the character of the soil depends largely upon 
these. Some soils are acid because they have not enough lime. Some 
are deficient in potash or phosphates, which are necessary if soil is to 
produce certain crops satisfactorily. 

Because it forms the soil, the composition of the underlying material 
is of great importance. In Minnesota most of the soil is the weathered 
portion of glacial drift or of lake beds and other features connected with 
the deposition of the drift. Long ago nearly all of what is now the state 
of Minnesota was covered over with a great ice sheet hundreds of feet 
thick that slowly moved down from the Canadian highland carrj'ing with 



2 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

it rocky material which it had gathered in the north. When the ice 
melted it left large quantities of rock and soil that had mingled with 
the ice, and this material is the loose drift that lies between the hard 
rock and the surface. At many places where it is not yet disintegrated 
it appears as large numbers of bowlders mixed with clay. Although the 
ice sheet moved very slowly, perhaps not more than a few rods a year 
or even less, it was active for a long period and locally it scoured the 
country clean of soil and loose material which, on melting, it piled up 
somewhere else. 

This statement of the origin of the loose material or drift is not 
speculation, but is substantiated by the most convincing facts. The de- 
posits and all of the features of the country formerly covered with ice 
are like those that may now be observed in Greenland or Antarctica, 
where the slowly moving ice fields or glaciers still cover bodies of land 
of continental proportions. Glacial bowlders, bowlder clay, scratches on 
the rocks, morainal hills and kettles, all ordered with respect to definite 
features of the former ice sheet, may be seen at thousands of places in 
Minnesota. 

The ice sheet covered the entire state of Minnesota except the south- 
eastern corner, embracing Houston County and the eastern part of 
Winona County. This territory is in the driftless area. The higher 
country within the driftless area is covered with a residuary clay formed 
during the long period when the rock was undergoing decay. Above this 
there is generally a covering of wind-blown silt-loam, or loess, which 
increases the productivity of the soil. 

The advance of the ice toward the south was not a single isolated 
invasion. There were warm periods during the glacial epoch when the 
ice melted much faster than it advanced, and when the edge of the ice 
retreated far to the north. Probably the entire ice cap was melted 
several times during the long period of the ice invasions. 

During the intervals when the country was free from ice, rock decay 
or weathering went on much as at present. Later the succeeding ice 
sheets covered the larger portions of these weathered surfaces, within the 
glaciated region. The later ice sheets, however, did not cover exactly the 
same areas that were covered by preceding ones. In places the deposits 
left by older ice sheets project beyond the edges of the deposits left by 
later ones. One may distinguish between them by the difference in the 
amounts of their decay and in some cases by differences in their material 
and in the character of the topography of their surfaces. Where deposits 
of one sheet are covered by those of a later one, the older drift sheet 
may be revealed where streams cut through the later one or where ex- 
cavations penetrate it. At some places an ancient soil formed by rock 



INTRODUCTION 3 

decay and carrying the remains of ancient vegetation marks the contact 
between the older and the younger drift. The boundaries of the drifts 
of various ages and the character of the soils formed by them are dis- 
cussed on pages that follow. 

Swamps are very numerous in Minnesota. They are portions of the 
old lake beds and other poorly drained areas and are of little value for 
agriculture until drained. Since the ice melted a growth of vegetation 
has been established on them and great thicknesses of partially decayed 
vegetation have accumulated in them. This forms the peat which is 
found in so many of the swamps. Some of it is very thick and will 
doubtless become a valuable asset in the future when other fuels shall 
have become more costly. 

The great productivity of Minnesota soils is due, not only to their 
recent origin by reason of which nearly all of them still contain the 
soluble mineral foods for plants, but also to a favorable climate. The 
low temperatures which frequently prevail during certain periods in 
winter make for healthful conditions for animal life and they also benefit 
plant life. The rainfall, though not excessively great, is sufficient and, 
since most of it occurs during the growing period, drouths are rare and 
crop failures almost unknown except in the more sandy soils, which are, 
however, adapted to quick-growing crops like potatoes. As shown herein, 
the length of the crop-growing season, that is, the time between late spring 
frosts and early autumn frosts, is between 100 and 170 days for all 
except the extreme northeast corner of the state. The long days, high 
proportion of sunshine, and the moderate humidity are all favorable to 
plant growth. 

This bulletin treats the soils of only the south half of Minnesota. 
The field embraced includes the part of the state south from the median 
line, which is near latitude 46° 25'. 

Following the plan in Bulletin No. 12, on Northwestern Minnesota, 
a brief general description of the surface features and deposits of the 
entire state is given, and the climate of the entire state also is discussed. 
It will be followed by a report on the entire state, the field work for which 
already has been completed. The work has been done in accordance with 
the agreement for cooperation between the United States Geological Sur- 
vey and the Minnesota Geological Survey, entered into, March, 1912. By 
this agreement the services of Mr. Frank Leverett were secured for sur- 
veying the surface formations and soils. Mr. Leverett has been engaged 
since 1886, or thirty-two years, in studying the surface geology of the 
Great Lakes region and because of his large experience in the greater 
area he was particularly well prepared to undertake the studies in Minne- 
sota. He has spent, moreover, considerable time in the state studying its 



4 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

physiography in connection with the preparation of a monograph for the 
United States Geological Survey. Since the reorganization of the State 
Survey, the salary of Mr, Leverett has been met by the United States 
Geological Survey, while the greater part of his expenses have been paid 
by the State Survey. The State Survey has provided also for this work 
the services and expenses of Professor F. W. Sardeson, who has assisted 
in this work for five seasons. We wish to acknowledge the generous 
assistance of the Division of Soils of the Department of Agriculture of 
the University of Minnesota and of the United States Bureau of Soils. 
The valuable contributions to the knowledge of the surface formations 
of Minnesota by the Minnesota Geological and Natural History Survey, 
under the direction of Professor N. H. Winchell, particularly those of 
Mr. Warren Upham of that survey, have aided greatly in the prepara- 
tion of this report. The section on climatic conditions in Minnesota has 
been generously contributed without any cost to the Survey by Mr. U. G. 
Purssell, Director of the Minnesota Section of the United States Weather 
Bureau. In the preparation of the maps and other data showing dates 
of killing frosts, lengths of growing season, rainfall, etc., Professor C. J. 
Posey has rendered efficient service. 

The cost of preparation of this report has been met by the Minne- 
sota Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey. This 
bulletin is printed by the Minnesota Geological Survey. Arrangements 
have been made so that land and colonization companies can secure these 
reports at actual cost of printing, and it is expected that this arrange- 
ment will secure a wide distribution. The maps are not intended to be 
used as a basis for the purchase of land ; they do not give an accurate 
description of each forty-acre tract or each section, but they show the 
general classification of the land, its climate, and its surroundings. 



CHAPTER I 

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MINNESOTA 
TOPOGRAPHY OF MINNESOTA 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The position of Minnesota is near the center of the North American 
Continent, and the state embraces an area of 84,682 square miles, of 
which about 93 per cent is land and 7 per cent water. Its extreme length 
is nearly 400 miles, from latitude 43° 30', at the Iowa line, to a point 
about 23 miles north of the 49th parallel, in the projection known as the 
Northwest Angle, northwest of Lake of the Woods. The greatest width 
is 367 miles, but the average width is only about 225 miles, or but little 
more than half of the length. 

Minnesota presents more variety in surface features than most of 
the north central states, yet a great part of its surface is level or only 
gently undulating. The flattest portion falls largely in the northwest 
quarter, and was once the bed of the glacial Lake Agassiz, a lake held in 
on the north, in central Canada, by the great ice sheet. The roughest 
portion is in the northeastern quarter. This part is composed largely of 
volcanic formations and iron-bearing rocks which, though glaciated, were 
not everywhere buried beneath the glacial deposits. In the southeastern 
part of the state deep erosion valleys along the Mississippi and its tribu- 
taries present bold rock bluffs 300 to 600 feet high. The interior and 
southern parts of the state have features due almost entirely to the work 
of the great ice sheets, which at successive times, and from different 
directions, overspread Minnesota. The glacial deposits comprise an 
intricate system of moraines with undulating to hilly surface, associated 
with which are level outwash plains of sand and gravel, and gently un- 
dulating intermorainic till plains. The moraines were formed along the 
border of the ice at definite lines where the edge of the ice held its position 
for a relatively long time. They consist of sharp knolls and inclosed 
basins and also of more or less parallel ridges which, however, interlock 
in places. These moraines are distributed in rudely concentric systems 
which mark successive positions of the border of each ice sheet as it 
was melting off from this region. The outwash plains lie on the outer 
border of the moraines, where sandy gravel was spread out by dirt-laden 
waters escaping from the ice. The till plains lie along the inner or ice- 
ward border of the moraines and represent areas over which the ice 
border melted back somewhat rapidly, forming relatively few knolls 
and ridges. 



6 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

ALTITUDE 

The altitude of Minnesota ranges from 602 feet, the level of Lake 
Superior, up to 2,230 feet, on high rock hills in the northeast part of the 
state, in western Cook County. The small map. Figure i, shows that a 
large part of the state falls between 1,000 and 1,500 feet. The average 
altitude of the state is not far from 1,200 feet. The portions above 1,500 
feet lie chiefly in two areas, one at the northeast and one at the southwest 
corner of the state, though there is a good sized area around the sources 
of the Mississippi River in the western part, and several smaller areas in 
that vicinity; one of these in the southern part of Otter Tail County is 
known as the Leaf Hills. The altitude of the elevated area in the south- 
western part falls short a little of reaching* 2,000 feet, but that in the 
northeastern part includes several small areas, chiefly in Cook County, 
that rise above 2,000 feet. The portions below 1,000 feet fall in two areas 
widely separated except for a connecting line along the Minnesota val- 
ley, one being on the western edge of the state and the other on the 
eastern. There is also a narrow strip bordering Lake Superior. 

RELIEF 

The most conspicuous relief is found in the "Sawtooth Range" and 
other prominent ridges that closely border Lake Superior and which 
rise abruptly from 500 to 900 feet above the lake. The rock ranges 
lying back from the shore, though more elevated than those fronting 
on the lake, seldom rise more than from 200 to 300 feet above the 
swamps and lakes among them. In fact several of the lakes of Cook 
County are above 1,900 feet or within 300 feet of the level of the highest 
points in the state. The most prominent part of the Mesabi Iron Range 
in St. Louis County rises from 400 to 450 feet above bordering plains. 
The Coteau des Prairies rises about 700 feet above the plain northeast 
of its border, but in Minnesota the rise is usually spread over a space of 
from 12 to 15 miles or more in width, so that the elevation can scarcely 
be appreciated by one crossing over it. There is a rather rapid rise of 
from 300 to 500 feet to the sharp range of hills in Otter Tail and Becker 
counties from the Red River valley. This rise is of especial interest 
since it seems to have some influence on the rainfall, the precipitation 
being greater in these hills where air currents are forced upward and 
cooled than in the bordering lower lands to the north, west, and south. 

DRAINAGE 

The drainage of Minnesota is widely divergent, part of it leading to 
the Gulf of Mexico, part to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and part to Hud- 
son Bay. The Gulf of Mexico receives about 57 per cent, the St. Law- 
rence less than 9 per cent, and Hudson Bay fully 34 per cent of the drain- 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MINNESOTA 7 

age. There was a time, however, after the glacial ice had melted from 
Minnesota but was still occupying the northeast part of the Superior 
basin and neighboring parts of Ontario and Manitoba, when all the drain- 
age was southward to the Gulf of Mexico. The western Superior basin 
then overflowed into the St. Croix River, while the Red River drainage 
basin, largely covered by Lake Agassiz, drained southward through lakes 
Traverse and Big Stone into the Minnesota valley. 

The drainage to the south, or Gulf of Mexico, has generally a gentle 
descent, and waterfalls are rather rare, though the Mississippi has no- 
table falls at Minneapolis and there are one or more falls or rapids on 
several of the tributaries. The drainage to Lake Superior is generally 
rapid and nearly every stream has several cascades. There is, however, 
a wide area of the upper St. Louis basin in which that stream and its 
tributaries have relatively gentle descent for many miles. The Hudson 
Bay drainage has a few rapids and waterfalls in the headwater part of 
Rainy River and its tributaries, but Red River and its main Minnesota 
affluent. Red Lake River, have no falls since no outcrops of solid rock 
occur along them. There is, however, very rapid descent for a few miles 
along Red Lake River and its tributary Clearwater River in Red Lake 
County. Red River is subject to great freshets because its lower course 
often remains frozen after the southern or headwater part has broken 
up. Thus ice jams are formed which divert the waters from the channel 
over the bordering plain. 

The streams of these several drainage systems are interwoven in 
part of the area, there being no prominent dividing ridges to separate 
them. In some cases a swamp may be drained either to Hudson Bay or 
to the Gulf of Mexico, while other swamps may be drained either to the 
Mississippi or to Lake Superior. 

LAKES 

Throughout much of Minnesota, except the northwest, southwest, 
and southeast corners, small lakes are a common feature. They usually 
occupy basins among the moraine ridges and knolls and on the outwash 
plains, but occur to some extent also on the till plains and among rock 
knobs. The combined area of the lakes within the state is estimated to 
be about 5,650 square miles, or nearly 7 per cent of the entire area. The 
largest lake is Red Lake, a very shallow body of water with an area of 
440 square miles. Other large lakes are Mille Lacs, also very shallow, 
Leech, Winnibigoshish, and Minnetonka. Minnetonka and the southern 
part of Leech Lake extend into a network of deep depressions among 
morainic ridges, but the other lakes are largely in plains that are slightly 
below the neighboring districts, partly morainic and partly plain. 




FIGURE I. ALTITUDE MAP OF MINNESOTA 



EXPLANATORY NOTE, FIGURE I 

This map shows the great extent of land in Minnesota standing between i,ooo 
and 1,500 feet above sea level, as well as the distribution of the higher areas and 
of areas standing below 1,000 feet. 

It shows also the effect of low areas in favoring the movement of the latest 
invasion of ice from the north, that which deposited the young gray Keewatin 
drift, as well as the efifect of the high areas in checking the movement. The great 
axial movement of the ice was through the low-lying Red River basin, much of 
which is below 1,000 feet, and thence down the Minnesota valley to the great bend 
at Mankato over a plain much of which is below 1,100 feet. The thumb-like off- 
shoot of the ice, in a lobe extending from Wright and Hennepin counties north- 
eastward across Anoka, Isanti, and Chisago counties, into the edge of Wisconsin, 
was apparently induced by an exceptionally low area, largely below 1,000 feet, 
over which it passed. In northern AUnnesota the ice passed over the relatively low 
land, 1,200 to 1,300 feet, along and near the Mississippi River in Cass and Itasca 
counties, into the St. Louis River basin in St. Louis County, and down the Missis- 
sippi in Aitkin County; but it was so checked by higher land, 1,500 to 1,750 feet, in 
Clearwater, Becker, and Hubbard counties, that it could there reach only south- 
eastern Hubbard and neighboring parts of Cass and Wadena counties. The Mesabi 
Range also held the ice border back nearly to the western edge of St. Louis County 
while it pushed eastward some distance in St. Louis County, both north and south 
of the range. 

The topography also influenced ice movement in the northeast part of the 
state. There was a strong movement of ice southwestward through the Superior 
basin, with its northwest border only a few miles back from the shore on the 
high land, much of which stands 1,500 feet or more above the sea. This high land 
was largely covered by ice moving southward from the neighboring part of Canada. 
The relations of this ice movement to that in the Superior basin, as well as to that 
which covered western Minnesota is set forth in the discussion of the glacial deposits. 



10 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

SURFACE GEOLOGY 

ROCK AREAS 

The areas in which rock is so exposed as to render the land untillable 
are largely in the northeast quarter of the state, or along valleys in the 
southeast quarter. The northwest quarter is estimated to have less than 
lo square miles of bare rock outcrop, and the southwest scarcely lOO 
square miles. It is doubtful if there is an area of i,ooo square miles 
in the entire state in which the plow would generally strike into rock 
ledges. The rock areas thus form a much smaller percentage of the 
state than the lake areas. The rock areas of the northeast part are chiefly 
rock bosses standing above the surrounding land, but the beds of the 
streams that lead directly down to Lake Superior are also usually on rock 
ledges. Among the rock knobs are some depressions covered only with 
moss and peaty material, glacial material being scanty, but ordinarily 
some glacial material is present and nearly all the land has soil enough 
over the bedrock to support a rich forest growth. Many of the knobs 
preserve the smooth surface left by the scouring effect of the ice sheet and 
are nearly destitute of vegetation. But certain others have become disin- 
tegrated to a depth of several inches or even to several feet from the sur- 
face and are supporting growths of vegetation of considerable density. 

The rock areas of the southwest part of the state are largely of Sioux 
quartzite which in places comes to the surface over areas of several square 
miles. The rocks have scarcely enough soil over them to support the 
scanty vegetation. There are a few small areas of granite knobs along 
the Minnesota valley from Big Stone Lake down to New Ulm. In the 
driftless area and part of the drift-covered area in southeastern Minne- 
sota, rock ledges of limestone and sandstone outcrop along the steep 
slopes of the valleys, often forming walls of considerable height. Rock 
is rarely exposed along the stream beds and valley bottoms. The uplands 
and the higher parts of the slopes of the valleys even in the driftless area 
usually have several feet of residuary clay and also a coating of loess or 
wind-deposited silt loam covering the rock formations and rendering the 
land tillable. 

THE EARTHY MANTLE 
GENERAL STATEMENT 

The variety of earthy, sandy, and gravelly unconsolidated deposits 
which cover the rocky floor of Minnesota were formed or deposited by 
different agencies and at different times. They may be grouped as fol- 
lows: 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MINNESOTA li 

First. Residuary material. 
Second. Wind deposits. 
Third. Glacial deposits. 
Fourth. Stream deposits. 
Fifth. Lake deposits. 

RESIDUARY MATERIAL 

The residuary material, as its name implies, has been left as a residue 
during the breaking down or decay of the surface rocks through weather- 
ing and solution. On limestones it is usually a dark, reddish brown, 
gummy clay, but on sandstones and crystalline rocks it is usually granu- 
lar and loose-textured. There is but a small part of Minnesota, chiefly 
in the southeastern counties, where residuary material is within reach 
of the plow. It occurs there on the upper part of the slopes of the val- 
leys and on the narrow upland strips between valleys, but it is usually cov- 
ered by loess. 

WIND DEPOSITS 

Loess. — ^The wind-deposited material known as loess is largely a fine 
silt loam, which forms the surface in an area in the southeast part of 
the state embracing much of Goodhue, Olmsted, Wabasha, Winona, Fill- 
more, and Houston counties and parts of Mower, Dodge, Rice, and Da- 
kota counties. It covers a small tract in the southwest part of the state. 
In the southeastern counties it rests in part on glacial drift deposits and 
in part on the residuary clay and rock formations of the driftless area. 
In the southwestern part it covers glacial deposits. In the southeast dis- 
trict its border is very irregular, there being long strips of loess-covered 
land projecting westward or northwestward into the region free from 
loess, and also long strips free from loess extending eastward into the 
loess-covered tracts. The condition there is such as might result from 
the presence or absence of vegetation giving different degrees of protec- 
tive power from the wind ; areas with dense vegetation being able to hold 
dust that settled from the atmosphere while bare ones allowed it to be 
gathered up and carried on. 

Wind-blown sand. — ^Wind-blown sand is also an important deposit. 
It embraces a district east of the Mississippi from Minneapolis up to 
Brainerd. It is narrow above St. Cloud, but below that city extends east- 
ward to the St. Croix River. The sand does not, however, cover the en- 
tire surface in this area. Where present it rests upon glacial deposits. 
It has low ridges seldom 20 feet and usually 10 feet or less in height. 
There is more or less wind-drifted sand in the sandy parts of the St. 
Louis River drainage basin, but it is sparingly developed compared to 



12 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

that in the district between the Mississippi and St. Croix rivers. Wind- 
blown sand occurs also in Aitkin County in the vicinity of McGregor and 
also in the northeastern part of the county in island-like tracts that are 
surrounded by marshes. There are numerous small areas of such sand 
scattered over the state, some of them being along the shores of the glacial 
Lake Agassiz. 

GLACL\L DEPOSITS 

The glacial deposits as shown in Figure 2 extend over the entire state 
except eastern Winona County and the greater part of Houston County, 
which are in the driftless area of the upper Mississippi. They underlie 
the wind-deposited sands and much of the loess area. They also underlie 
stream deposits and lake sediments. The glacial deposits are separable 
into till or bowlder clay in which stones, clay, and sand are closely com- 
mingled ; and into sand or gravel beds which show some assorting and 
bedding by water action. The percentage of stony material varies greatly 
and the matrix also shows variations from compact clay to loose sand. 
These variations are to be expected in a deposit that had been formed 
from the dirt and stones included in an ice sheet. Every observing farmer 
has probably noted and perhaps speculated upon the cause for these varia- 
tions in the drift deposits which form the basis for so large a part of the 
Minnesota soil. The assorted sand and gravel beds are largely due to 
waters escaping from the melting ice and many of them may be traced 
up to a moraine which marked the position of the ice border at the time 
they were laid down. They show a decrease in coarseness in passing 
away from the edge of the moraine, the coarse material having been 
dropped close to the edge of the ice and only the fine carried to a great 
distance outside. 

The glacial deposits also show some variations that relate to the kind 
of rock formations over which the ice passed. Thus, the northeastern 
portion of the state has a rather stony drift from the volcanic and hard 
crystalline rocks of that region. This stony material was carried as far 
south as Dakota County and forms the red drift of eastern and north- 
eastern Minnesota. As indicated below, the red drift is the product of 
more than one ice sheet. The western and southern parts of the state 
have a large amount of clayey drift material with limestone pebbles im- 
bedded. This material was gathered by this ice as it passed in its south- 
ward course from the shales and limestone of southern Manitoba, into 
the area of granite and other crystalline rocks. These clayey and limy 
deposits form what is known as the gray drift of Minnesota, and the 
ice sheet which formed it, as the Keewatin ice sheet. 




FIGURE 2. MAP OF GLACIAL DRIFTS, LOESS, AND GLACIAL LAKES IN MINNESOTA 



14 SURFACE I'ORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 



STREAM DEPOSITS 



The stream deposits, being restricted to the valleys, are of limited 
area, though in such valleys as the Minnesota and Mississippi they are 
locally several miles in width and form important agricultural belts. On 
the Minnesota and the part of the Mississippi below the confluence with 
the Minnesota the deposits made by the rivers are sand or silt. On the 
Mississippi above the mouth of the Minnesota the deposits range from 
sand to coarse cobble and bowlders in correspondence with the swiftness 
of the stream. On nearly all the tributaries of the Mississippi and Min- 
nesota the streams are able to carry coarse as well as fine material. Along 
the Red River a considerable amount of fine clay and clay loam has been 
deposited in seasons of flood on the plains outside the immediate river 
channel. The deposits made by glacial streams or those which had their 
sources at the edge of the ice and were receiving much of their water from 
the melting ice, now appear usually as terraces along the valleys above the 
limits of floods. From the fact that the glacial rivers were of greater 
volume these deposits are generally composed of sandy and gravelly 
material somewhat coarser than that carried by the present rivers. 

LAKE DEPOSITS 

The lake deposits consist of fine sediments washed into the deep parts 
of the lakes, and sandy and pebbly deposits washed up and formed into 
beaches along the shores. In parts of the lakes where the glacial deposits 
which they covered were pebbly and the water was shallow enough for 
wave action, there was a concentration of stony material by the washing- 
out of the finer material. By this process considerable areas of the bed 
of Lake Agassiz were covered by very pebbly beds several inches in 
depth. They are classed on the soil maps as "lake-washed till." In the 
narrow strip along the shore of Lake Superior that was covered by the 
waters of a glacial lake known as Lake Duluth, there is very little fine 
sediment ; gravelly and cobbly beaches were formed at several succes- 
sive levels, while fine material was washed down into the deeper parts of 
the basin covered by the present lake. Fine material also covers the old 
lake plain in Carlton County arid a strip on the south side of Lake Su- 
perior. 

THE GLACIAL FEATURES AND THEIR HISTORY 

It has been found through a study of the deposits in Minnesota and 
neighboring states that the glacial deposits which form so extensive a 
mantle in Minnesota are the result of more than one invasion of the 
ice from the Canadian highlands. At each invasion the ice left a deposit 
of drift gathered partly from Canada and partly from the deposits over 
which it passed in Minnesota. The advances were so widely separated 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MINNESOTA 15 

in time that the drift deposits of one invasion had large valleys cut in 
them by the action of streams before the next invasion occurred. The 
later advances failed to reach the limits of the earlier deposits, so they 
are still exposed to view, and the degree of erosion of the surface of the 
older can be compared with that on the surface of the younger deposits. 
It is found that the older drifts have been so greatly eroded and are so 
ramified by drainage lines that no lakes or undrained basins remain on 
them, while the younger drift deposits have numerous lakes and un- 
drained basins and also large, poorly drained areas which the streams 
have not yet reached. It is because they are not covered by the latest 
drift that Rock and Pipestone counties in southwestern Minnesota, and 
Goodhue, Dodge, Wabasha, Olmsted, Winona, Fillmore, and Mower 
counties in southeastern Minnesota have no lakes and basins such as 
characterize neighboring counties that were covered by that drift. 

The invasions of the ice into Minnesota not only took place at dif- 
ferent times, but have come from more than one direction at about the 
same time. In the earlier invasions the greater part of the state was 
covered by ice coming from Manitoba as shown by limestone fragments 
and pebbles derived from rock formations of that country which are im- 
bedded in the lower part of the drift over all of the state except its north- 
east part. The movements in the closing stage of the glacial epoch were 
more largely from the northeast, but more than half of the state was 
invaded from the northwest. The ice sheets were as follows: i. The 
Superior lobe of the Labrador ice sheet, an extension of ice southwest- 
ward from the Superior basin nearly to Mille Lacs Lake; 2. The Pa- 
trician ice sheet, with southward movement from the highlands north of 
Lake Superior across eastern Minnesota to points a little beyond St. Paul ; 
3. The Keewatin ice sheet, which moved southward through Manitoba 
and across western Minnesota. After the melting away of the ice that 
came from the northern highlands, the Keewatin ice sheet extended over 
some of the ground that ice had vacated. It crossed the Mesabi Range 
into the St. Louis basin, and also moved northeastward from near Min- 
neapolis into Wisconsin. This advance over earlier drift deposits is 
known from the presence of a thin deposit of clayey and limy drift con- 
taining rock material brought from Manitoba which covers the drift that 
was deposited by ice coming from the highlands northwest of Lake Su- 
perior. The drift from these highlands together with that from the Lake 
Superior basin forms the stony red drift of eastern Minnesota, while that 
from Manitoba forms the clayey and limy gray drift which covers almost 
all of the remainder of the state. 

That the ice mass moved in different directions at different times in 
certain parts of the state is further shown by striations or ice markings 



i6 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

on the surfaces of the rock ledges. In the district east and south of the 
Lake of the Woods a set of glacial grooves or ice markings bears west 
of south, while a newer set crosses them in an eastward or southeast- 
ward direction. The older set was formed by ice moving into Minnesota 
from the highlands that lie between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg, 
while the younger set was formed by ice moving into the state from 
Manitoba. In North Minneapolis there are rock ledges on which the 
glacial grooves have three courses; first, a southeastward course at the 
time when the old gray drift which came from the northwest was brought 
in ; second, a southward course at a time when the red drift which came 
from the north was deposited; third, an eastward course at the time 
when the ice from the northwest advanced over land that had been 
vacated by the ice which deposited the red drift. 

GLACIAL LAKE FEATURES 

Minnesota contains parts of the beds of two large glacial lakes : Lake 
Duluth, which occupied the western part of the Superior basin, and Lake 
Agassiz which occupied the Red River basin. Lake Duluth covered a 
narrow strip along the shore of Lake Superior and extended a few miles 
beyond the west end of Lake Superior into eastern Carlton County, Min- 
nesota. Its highest stages were 500 to 700 feet above the present surface 
of Lake Superior, there being an increasing height toward the northeast 
corner of the state. Lake Agassiz extended as far south as Lake Trav- 
erse, and thence it discharged past Brown Valley to the Minnesota. Its 
border is only from 20 to 30 miles east from the North Dakota-Minnesota 
line from Lake Traverse northward to Polk County. About 20 miles 
east-southeast of Crookston it makes an abrupt eastward turn and con- 
tinues eastward past the south side of Red Lake and on across Koochi- 
ching County into St. Louis County as far as the valley of Little Fork 
River. It then turns northward and enters Canada from northeastern 
St. Louis County. There were several islands in it in northern St. Louis 
County. 

Preceding the development of the large glacial Lake Agassiz there 
was a temporary ponding of waters in front of the ice in Koochiching, 
Itasca, and St. Louis counties at a level higher than that of Lake Agassiz, 
and a discharge of the waters southward across the Mesabi Iron Range 
into the St. Louis basin along the course of the Embarrass River. With 
the melting back of the ice border this lake became merged with Lake 
Agassiz, and its waters then discharged into the Minnesota valley. 

In the Crow Wing drainage basin a glacial lake. Lake Wadena, cov- 
ering much of Wadena County, and parts of Hubbard, Cass, Morrison, 
and Todd counties, was held up by the Patrician ice sheet, which covered 
the lower course of Crow Wing River below Pillager. Its outlet was 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MINNESOTA 17 

southward from Long Prairie to the Sauk River drainage. Outwash 
plains near Pillager terminate abruptly at the edge of this lake at an alti- 
tude of about 1,300 feet, or nearly 150 feet above the adjacent part of 
the plain on Crow Wing River that was covered by the lake (see Pillager 
topographic map). This was the deepest part of the lake. In much of 
its area the waters were very shallow. This lake area was later en- 
croached upon by the Keewatin ice sheet, so its shore lines are obliterated 
except along the eastern side. Its outlet has also been filled by gravel 
deposits from the Keewatin ice sheet for a few miles south from Long 
Prairie. 

There were also two noteworthy temporary lakes in northeastern 
Minnesota which were not held up by ice barriers, but instead by land 
barriers along their outlets. When these were cut away the lakes be- 
came drained. One of these, named Lake Aitkin by Upham, occupied 
the plain bordering the Mississippi in Aitkin County and extended a 
short distance into eastern Crow Wing County. It was drained by the 
erosion of the Mississippi valley at its lower end just above Brainerd. 
The other lake, named Lake Upham by Winchell, occupied a consider- 
able part of the St. Louis basin in western St. Louis County. It was 
drained by the erosion of the St. Louis valley below Floodwood. 

Prominent features of the two great glacial lakes, Lake Agassiz and 
Lake Dulath, are the beaches or ridges of sand and gravel washed up 
along their shores. The shores of Lake Agassiz stand high and dry above 
the flat parts of the lake bed between or below them and form excellent 
lines for highways. For this reason much of the pioneer settlement and 
travel was along these ridges. They generally stand from 5 to 10 feet 
above the bordering plains and occasionally from 15 to 20 feet. On the 
inner or lakeward side they are generally more prominent than on the 
outer or landward side. This is due in part to the original slope toward 
the center of the lake, but there is also a tendency for a lake to eat back 
into the bordering land and throw its coarser material up on the edge of 
the plain outside ; at the same time the fine material is carried in sus- 
pension from the shore into the deeper water. 

The levels of these glacial lakes were lowered from time to time, 
partly by the cutting-down of the outlets and partly by an uplift of this 
region which caused the water to fall away where the land rose. There 
was also a change of outlet in Lake Agassiz from the southern end to 
the northern and in Lake Duluth from the southward outlet into the 
St. Croix River to an eastward outlet into the Lake Huron basin. As 
a result shore lines were formed at various levels on the slopes of the 
old lake beds. Because of the gradual lowering of the water level the 
greater part of the beds of these glacial lakes has at some time been 



i8 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

subjected to wave action. This has produced a widespread pebbly coat- 
ing which is a concentrate from the washing of the surface of the bowl- 
der clay and the carrying-away of its finer material. Where the bowlder 
clay was sandy, the sand as well as stones remain, but where it was clayey 
there is often a clear bed of pebbles a few inches in depth covering the 
clayey till subsoil. The deep part of Lake Agassiz along the borders 
of Red River received nearly all the fine sediment which was washed 
out from the till at higher levels. This forms the bulk of the rich black 
clay and clay loam of the Red River basin. At its eastern border, fifteen 
to twenty-five miles from Red River, there is a transition to sand. This 
is succeeded within two to five miles east by stony sandy deposits which 
seem to be a glacial material worked over by the lake. 

GENERAL SOIL CONDITIONS 

Soil is composed of materials derived from the subsoil and mixed with 
organic matter. Subsoil is the weathered and disintegrated top of the 
underlying geological formation. For its qualities and composition the 
soil of a given region therefore depends quite closely upon the nature 
of the geological formations there exposed. In Minnesota the land 
mantle of glacial and lake deposits affords a well-mixed and rich supply 
of materials suited for soil-making. This is particularly true where it 
consists of till or bowlder clay in which all classes of material are loosely 
but thoroughly mixed. This contrasts with soils in which there is too 
much uniformity and which, when of water-washed sand or gravel, are 
often deficient in fine material. On the other hand, the loess and the 
lake silts, though of somewhat uniform texture, make rich soils because 
of the variety of finely divided minerals which they contain. 

The soil and its productiveness depend largely upon the drainage con- 
ditions. A soil of clay or clay loam over gravel or loose sand suffers 
in time of deficient rainfall, while in wet seasons a soil resting upon heavy 
clay may be drowned out unless surface drainage is perfectly adjusted. 
For this reason the geologic formation underlying a soil is of great im- 
portance. Soil underlaid by limestone, by loess, or by a till consisting of 
a light clay, or a heavy loam will stand great variation in rainfall and 
still be highly productive. In some parts of the state the surface drain- 
age is naturally well developed, while in other parts it needs to be greatly 
supplemented by tile draining or surface ditching. 

In the Driftless Area the drainage on the uplands is everywhere com- 
plete, for nearly every acre slopes toward some drainage line. In the 
old drift also there are few undrained areas and tiling or surface ditching 
is seldom necessary. In the young drift there are many basins, and un- 
drained depressions and drainage lines are not well distributed over the 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MINNESOTA 19 

surface. Except, therefore, where the material is loose enough for the 
rainfall to be absorbed completely the young drift areas need consider- 
able ditching and tiling. In the bed of Lake Agassiz, although basins and 
depressions are rare, there are wide areas where the surface is very flat 
and extensive and systematic tiling or ditching is required to keep the 
land from being flooded. 

VEGETATION 

The condition of the soil depends to some degree upon the character 
of the vegetation which has covered it. In prairie districts there is a 
more imiform exposure to weathering agencies than in forested districts 
and consequently a more uniform soil is developed on a given deposit. 
On the whole, leaching of lime seems to be less rapid on prairies than 
in forests so that in the newer drift limestones are often present at the 
surface in prairies, but in the forested areas limestones are usually dis- 
solved out to a depth of some inches and often to some feet from the 
surface. On the older drift the limestone is generally removed to a 
depth of several feet both in prairie and forest, but the leaching is per- 
ceptibly deeper in the forested areas. The rate of erosion and removal of 
soil is more uniform in prairie than in forested tracts. It takes more 
force to dislodge the trees than the grassy vegetation on hillside slopes, 
and erosion in the forests is likely to become concentrated in occasional 
gullies, whereas on prairies there are many small channels developed on 
every hillside which serve to break it down rapidly. On the whole, there- 
fore, erosion is greater but leaching is less in prairie than in forested 
areas. 

The forests occur only on protected slopes in much of southern Min- 
nesota and are absent from such slopes in much of the western part of 
the state (Figure 3). In the central and northeastern parts they cover 
plains or uplands as well as valley slopes. The muskegs, which have 
a scanty forest growth, are developed chiefly in the northern half of the 
state and chiefly within the forested area. 

WEATHERING 

There are parts of the newer drift in which fresh material is close 
to the surface so that they can scarcely be said to have a subsoil different 
from the drift sheet as a whole. There are also places on valley slopes 
in the older drift where unweathered material is close to the surface, be- 
cause erosion keeps pace with the weathering of the drift. At most 
places, however, the older drift has a mantle of weathered material sev- 
eral feet in thickness, while that of the younger drift is only one or two 
feet thick. In this the feldspar and other minerals are disintegrated and 
made ready for plant food. 




FIGURE 3. MAP OF MINNESOTA SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST AND PRAIRIE. (aFTER 
MAP BY WARREN UPHAM AND BY FREDERIC K. BUTTERS) 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MINNESOTA 21 

Weathering in the loess-covered areas is moderately deep, as it is in 
the older drift. The entire deposit of loess, however, is of fine texture 
and is found to be very fertile from top to bottom. 

LIME 

While most of the soils of the northwestern part of the state seem 
abundantly supplied with lime, it is probable that some of the more sandy 
ones would give a sufficiently greater yield of certain crops to make it 
profitable to purchase some form of lime if this could be obtained at a 
low price. Usually when a soil needs lime, it is advisable to apply one 
ton or more of ground limestone or marl per acre. If this has to be 
shipped any considerable distance, the freight charges may greatly exceed 
the cost of the material on board of the cars at the point of shipment. 
For this reason it is important to locate a supply as near as possible to 
the place where it is to be used. 

Lime occurs abundantly in two forms in Minnesota : as bog-lime or 
marl, and as limestone. The marl is unconsolidated and easily pulverized. 
It needs no crushing or grinding. Limestone is consolidated and must 
be crushed or ground for use on fields. 

Marl is found in Minnesota in many lakes and under some bogs that 
have been lakes. It is of most frequent occurrence in the central and 
north central part of the state. It lies always in low wet ground and 
can be found, as a rule, only by boring or ditching. It is a soft, white 
or gray, chalky material. Since it needs no crushing or grinding, the 
cost of the marl is in the finding, ditching and draining, or drying of it. 
Deposits from i to 10 feet in thickness and covering from i to 100 acres 
are known to be of common occurrence. 

Limestone formations outcrop in the bluffs along the Mississippi and 
its tributaries in southeastern Minnesota. The formations lie horizon- 
tally and are of wide extent, or practically continuous for many miles. 
Limestone formations 100 feet or more thick extend along the valleys 
from the southeastern corner of the state to Stillwater, Minneapolis, Man- 
kato, Austin, and intermediate points. An inexhaustible supply of lime- 
stone is easily found in outcrops that are high, so that quarrying, crush- 
ing, and loading can all be done in a down-hill direction, the cost of pro- 
duction being thereby lessened. 

EFFECT OF FIRES 

There are large areas in Minnesota which have been swept by forest 
fires, and these fires have destroyed much of the accumulated leaf mold. 
In sandy areas the destruction of the leaf mold may have reduced some- 
what the productiveness of the land, for the leaf mold acts as a mulch 
to prevent the drying out of the soil. But in clayey areas there seems to 



22 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

have been very little reduction of the fertility. The leaf mold in such 
places, however, when turned under has a beneficial effect in loosening 
the stiff clay. A large area of clay land in the Little Fork drainage basin 
in St. Louis and southeastern Koochiching counties was burned over some 
fifty or more years ago, according to statements of the Indians, and the 
leaf mold was almost completely destroyed. A heavy growth of poplar 
has sprung up on the drier parts instead of the mixed hardwood that had 
occupied the land, while the wet areas have a fresh stand of spruce. 
This district is being rapidly cleared and is producing exceptionally 
good crops. The forest fire near Hinckley in Pine County, which 
occurred about twenty-five years ago, swept over an area chiefly of 
till much of which is loose-textured. This had a similar effect in 
changing the forest from mixed hardwood and pine to poplar. This 
area is now one of marked agricultural fertility adapted to a variety 
of crops. The principal damage by fire in this state, both past and pro- 
spective, seems to be in the destruction of peat in the bogs. In such cases 
there is not only the loss of a valuable fuel, but the land is left in a rough 
state ill-suited for cultivation. 



CHAPTER II 

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF MINNESOTA 

By U. G. Purssell 
Director of the Minnesota Section of the United States Weather Bureau 

INTRODUCTION 

The agriculture of any region is controlled by its climate. In some 
parts of the world temperature is the main factor in determining the 
limits of growth of certain kinds of crops; in others it is rainfall, and 
in still others it is the amount of sunshine. All of these factors are 
important in influencing the crop yield even in districts where the gen- 
eral climatic conditions are satisfactory for the growth of plants. In 
Minnesota these elements are so favorable that a majority of the crops 
common to the temperate zone may be successfully grown, and a failure 
of all the important crops is very rare even over a small portion of the 
state. 

Rainfall is an important factor for most crops in the state, because 
the proper amount of water in the soil at the critical period of develop- 
ment of the plant is necessary to produce a large crop. The length of 
the growing season also is important and probably no other factor in 
the study of climate from the standpoint of the agriculturist should be 
given more consideration. This is the key to an actual knowledge as to 
the possibilities of success or failure in the production of crops since 
in parts of the state crops are menaced by frost at some period of their 
growth, whereas sunshine and moisture seldom vary in Minnesota beyond 
safe limits. 

The factors which determine the climate of any area are the relative 
distribution of land and water, the topography of the land surface, and 
the situation of the area in question with relation to the general move- 
ment of the cyclones and anti-cyclones. 

The position of Minnesota at the center of North America gives it 
a climate that is largely continental. In continental climates the tem- 
perature extremes are greater and the humidity and rainfall generally 
less than at places near large bodies of water, such as border on the 
Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts of the United States. The effect of 
wmds from great bodies of water is to equalize temperatures of lands 
near by and to lengthen materially the crop-growing season. This is par- 
ticularly true of the country in the vicinity of Lake Superior, where 
the influence of that great inland sea in modifying the cold anti-cyclones 



24 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

gives to that section a more equable climate than would otherwise obtain 
in that portion of the state. The summer temperatures are likewise 
modified and people from long distances inland in steadily increasing 
numbers are establishing summer homes about the lake, to which they 
are attracted during the hot summer months. There are more than 
7,000 small lakes scattered throughout the state and these have a mate- 
rial local influence in modifying the heat of summer and give comfort 
to thousands of residents on their shores. 

Monthly and annual reports of temperature, rainfall, snowfall, etc., 
have been published for a large number of regular and cooperative sta- 
tions in Minnesota since 1895. Recently three special section reports 
have been issued by the United States Weather Bureau giving monthly 
and annual precipitation totals for all points in the state with a record 
of ten years or over, together with average temperatures and other data. 
In these reports the more important facts from all portions of the state 
are tabulated and the comparative cHmatic conditions of the different sec- 
tions graphically shown. 

GENERAL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

Minnesota is in the path of a large proportion of the low-pressure 
areas which move across the United States from west to east. These 
areas move at an average speed of 600 miles in twenty-four hours and 
are preceded by southerly winds and higher temperature and followed 
by northerly winds and lower temperature. They are usually accom- 
panied by cloudy weather and precipitation ; each storm causing an aver- 
age of from one to two rainy days as it crosses the state. 

As there is an average of almost two of these storms each week with 
fair weather periods between, it follows that the changes in weather 
conditions are rather rapid. One or two days of stormy weather pre- 
ceded by fair weather and followed by clearing and lower temperatures 
to be repeated in turn, make up the usual routine for the week. How- 
ever, Minnesota is so far from the coast that damaging ocean storms 
lose much of their severity before reaching its borders. 

The northwestern cold waves pass across the state and send their 
health-giving winds into all parts, and yet they are frequently not so 
severe as they are in some of the plains states in the same latitude or 
even farther south. 

Temperature. — The average annual temperature of Minnesota for the 
period 1895 to 1913 inclusive, is 41.7°, as shown in Table I and graph- 
ically by Figure 4. The highest annual mean temperature, 43.9°, oc- 
curred in 1900, and the lowest, 39.9°, in 1912. The departure of the 
average temperature of any year from the normal may readily be deter- 




FIGURE 4. MAP SHOWING MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURES OF MINNESOTA 
(degrees FAHRENHEIT) 



25 



26 



SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 



mined by comparing the yearly average with the mean at the foot of the 
column. 



Table I. Monthly and Annual Mean Temperature for Minnesota (Degrees Fahrenheit) 



1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
J913 
1914 



Mean . . 



Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


April 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 

~67^ 


Sept. 


Oct. 

41.4 


Nov. 
1^ 


Dec. 

~8^ 




• . ... 


49.9 


56.9 


64.6 


67.8 


12-3 


17-9 


21.4 


44.5 


60.9 


66.5 


69.9 


67.9 


54-3 


42.4 


18.0 


20.3 


7-3 


15 3 


20.7 


43-7 


S5-2 


62. S 


71.6 


64.2 


6S.3 


50.0 


26.6 


12.3 


18.3 


16.4 


30.3 


43-5 


.SS.6 


67.0 


69.8 


66.9 


60.6 


42.9 


26.6 


11.9 


9-9 


4-5 


14.7 


44.0 


55-1 


65.4 


70.2 


69.1 


56-4 


490 


39-6 


17-9 


18.4 


5-2 


23-4 


49. S 


59-9 


66.8 


68.8 


74.3 


58.2 


55.1 


25-4 


18.6 


132 


lO.C 


27-3 


46.7 


58.2 


6S.5 


74-7 


69.8 


S7-3 


49.2 


28.8 


130 


15.9 


1^.5 


34.0 


42.6 


57-0 


61.3 


69.7 


6,S.2 


55-2 


47.1 


33-3 


12.6 


1 1-3 


10.6 


29.6 


43.3 


55.7 


62.3 


67.2 


63.6 


55.5 


46.1 


27-3 


Q.8 


4-5 


2.3 


24.8 


38.8 


55-4 


63-2 


66.0 


64.9 


57-4 


47-4 


36.7 


16.7 


5.6 


ri.9 


33-7 


42.0 


52.6 


63.0 


67.3 


68.9 


61.9 


43-5 


331 


20.6 


17.0 


I3« 


20.6 


47.9 


53-7 


63.7 


68.3 


68.7 


63.3 


45-7 


30.7 


15.9 


3-8 


14 8 


28.7 


34-7 


45-5 


63.3 


68.2 


66.1 


55-9 


45.4 


31-7 


21.3 


16.4 


179 


26.4 


45.2 


53-9 


62.5 


69.4 


ts.s 


64.2 


47.0 


33.8 


17.5 


10.5 


13.7 


26.1 


3,S.8 


53-2 


65.0 


692 


70.9 


.■58.7 


44.7 


33.8 


10. 


1 1.8 


7-'^ 


41.7 


48.0 


51.6 


67.8 


z^-^ 


65.8 


58.4 


50.8 


25-3 


14.7 


5-4 


16.6 


32.7 


42.7 


59.8 


69.7 


68.2 


64.0 


.■56.7 


43-4 


20.2 


19.4 


—6.7 


10.6 


19.8 


45.5 


55-9 


62.5 


68.5 


639 


57-2 


47-5 


33-9 


20.0 


7.2 


8.6 


20.4 


46.4 


52.7 


67.4 


67.3 


69.2 


S8.6 


42.7 


36.9 


26.1 


16.9 
10.3 


2.8 
11.2 


26.6 
26.5 


41.2 


57.6 


64.6 
64.7 


72.4 
693 


66.1 

7^ 


60.0 


52.6 
46.S 


33.0 
30.1 


9.0 


43-8 


55-3 


16.7 



Year 



41.6 
4i.a 
42.3 
4i.a 
43.9 
42.8 
42.6 
40.3 
40.1 
41.5 
42.0 
40.1 
43-4 
41.0 
42.8 
41.6 
39.9 
42.0 
41.8 

41.7 



The coldest month is January, which has a mean temperature of 
10.5°, although the average for February is only 0.7° higher. In a great 
many instances February has averaged colder than the preceding January. 
This condition occurred in the seven successive years from 1898 to 1904 
inclusive. Average January temperatures are plotted on Figure 5. 

July is the warmest month, with an average temperature of 69.3°, 
although in a few years the mean temperature for June or for August is 
higher than for July of the same year. Average July temperatures are 
plotted on Figure 6. 

The highest summer mean, 70.0°, occurred in 1900 and 1901 (Table 
II). The coldest summer was that of 1903, with an average of 64.4°. 

The warmest crop-growing season (April to September inclusive) 
of the eighteen years under discussion was in 1900, when the average 
was 62.9°, and the coldest was in 1907, with an average of 55.6°. 

The warmest winter (December to February inclusive) was in 1907-8, 
when the mean temperature was 18.5°. The coldest was in 1903-4, with 
a mean temperature of 5.5°. Table II shows also the warmest and coldest 
spring and autumn. 

In Figures 7 and 8 are shown the highest and lowest temperatures 
ever recorded in the various counties where records have been kept. 
From these figures it can readily be seen that the extreme range of tem- 
perature is from 110° in Kandiyohi County and Milan, to —59° at Leech 
Lake Dam and Pokegama Falls. Temperatures above 100° have been 
recorded in all counties except those about the headwaters of the Missis- 




figure s. map showing mean temperatures of minnesota for january 
(degrees Fahrenheit) 



37 




FIGURE 6. MAP SHOWING MEAN TEMPERATUEES OF MINNESOTA FOR JULY 
(degrees FAHRENHEIT) 



28 




FIGXniE 7. MAP SHOWING HIGHEST KNOWN TEMPERATIJSES IN MINNESOTA 
(DEGBEES FAHRENHEIT) 



as) 




FIGURE 8. MAP SHOWING LOWEST KNOWN TEMPERATURES IN MINNESOTA 
(degrees FAHRENHEIT) 



30 



CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF MINNESOTA 



31 



sippi River, and in the covmtry immediately bordering on Lake Supe- 
rior. Temperatures of — 40'^ have occurred in nearly all northern and 
central counties and in a few southern counties, but these great extremes 
do not occur frequently. 

Table II. Seasonal Temperatures for Minnesota (Degrees Fahrenheit) 



189s 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
X904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 



Year 



Mean 











April to Sept. 


Winter 


Spring 


Summer 


Fall 


inclusive 


mean 


mean 


mean 


mean 


(crop-grow- 
ing season) 










61.4 


16.2 


42-3 


68.1 


38.2 


60.7 


14-3 


39.9 


66.1 


47.3 


60.4 


15-7 


43-1 


67.9 


43-4 


60.6 


8.8 


37-9 


68.2 


48.3 


60.0 


13.8 


44-3 


70.0 


46.2 


62.9 


13-9 


44-1 


70.0 


45.1 


62.0 


14.8 


44.5 


65-4 


45-2 


58.S 


H.5 


42.9 


64.4 


430 


S7-9 


5-5 


40.0 


64.7 


47.2 


57.6 


10.4 


42.8 


66.4 


46.2 


59.3 


17.1 


40.7 


66.9 


46.6 


60.9 


II. 5 


36.3 


65-9 


44-3 


5S.6 


18.5 


41.3 


65.8 


48.3 


60.1 


13-9 


38.4 


68.4 


45-7 


S8.8 


9.8 


47.1 


68.1 


44.8 


60.4 


12.2 


4S.I 


67.3 


40.1 


60.2 


7-8 


40.4 


65.0 


46.2 


.S8.9 


11.9 


39.8 


68.0 


46.1 


60.3 


15.3 


41.8 


67.7 


48.5 


60.3 


12.8 


41.7 


67.0 


45.3 


59-8 



Frosts. — Although frosts have occurred in some portions of the state 
every month of the year, damaging temperatures are not to be expected 
during June, July, and August, and they are comparatively rare in the 
last half of May and the first half of September. Records of ten or 
more years are available from a large number of places in the state, 
of which charts have been constructed showing the average date of the 
last killing frost in spring and the first one in autumn. Using these dates 
as boundaries, we can mark the average beginning and ending of crop 
growth and determine the average length of the growing season. All of 
this information is graphically shown in Figures 9, 10, and 11. By refer- 
ence to Figure 1 1 the influence of Lake Superior in lengthening the crop- 
growing season in its vicinity may be seen ; while in the same latitude 
in the highlands of Hubbard, Becker, eastern Mahnomen, and Clearwater 
counties the season is twenty to thirty days shorter. The longest season, 
160 days, obtains along the Mississippi River from Hennepin County 
to the southeastern corner of the state, and the shortest, 100 days or less, 
is in the region of the Mesabi and Vermilion Iron ranges. 




MA'(\0 APffM 



FIGURE 9. MAP SHOWING AVERAGE DATE OF THE LAST KILLING FROST IN SPRING IN 

MINNESOTA 



32 




FIGURE 10. MAP SHOWING AVERAGE DATE OF FIRST KILUNG FROST IN AUTUMN IN 

MINNESOTA 



33 




FIGURE II. MAP SHOWING NUMBER OF DAYS OF THE AVERAGE CROP-GROWING SEASON IK 

MINNESOTA 



34 




FIGURE 12. MAP SHOWING THE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION FOR MINNESOTA 



35 



36 



SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 



Table III. Average Monthly and Annual Precipitation for Minnesota (in Inches) 



'!»5 
1896 

1897 

189S 

1899 

1900 

1901 

190a 

1903 

1904 

J905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1913 

1913 

1914 



Mean 



Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Year 


• • • • 


• • • • 


• • • • 


1.68 


3..30 


4.37 


3-2§ 


3.27 


3-93 


0.35 


1.33 


0.38 




0.76 


0.39 


1.97 


.S-9I 


S.03 


4.07 


1.88 


3.38 


IM 


3.95 


3.69 


0.61 


33.04 


1.77 


1. 31 


3.07 


i.SS 


1..38 


S.40 


6.63 


3.54 


'•§5 


0.53 


0.38 


37.33 


0.16 


1.02 


X.3I 


1.64 


3.36 




3.94 


3.33 


1.53 


3.83 


1.03 


0.18 


34.31 


0.60 


0.78 


i-SH 


1.49 


4.46 


6.36 


l:$i 


5.3s 


1.47 


3.33 


0.63 


0.95 


30.14 


0.48 


0.56 


1.30 


1.47 


0.90 


1.71 


6.44 


6.S5 


3.8s 


0.63 


0.51 


29.79 


0.38 


0.40 


1.68 


1.73 


1.41 


S.81 


3.33 


3.31 


4-34 


1.86 


0.78 


0.57 


24.26 


0.44 


0.67 


0.93 


1.67 


5.10 


3.33 


4.76 


4.3s 


3.33 


1.93 


I.S7 


1.79 


39.46 
33.8s 


0.4s 


0.S9 


1.7.S 


3.83 


.'i.37 


1.96 


S.ii 


4.6.S 


5.63 


3.13 


0.35 


0.84 


0.39 


0.63 


i.Si 


1.73 


3.43 


4.36 


396 


3.77 


3.14 


3. SO 


0.14 


0.83 


39.65 


0.6s 


0.5S 


I.3I 


1.46 


5-54 
5.S8 


6.41 


4.13 


4.36 


3-45 


3.53 


3.64 


o.is 


33.10 


I. IS 


0.37 


1.30 


1.73 


4.55 


3.93 


4.66 


3-73 


3.38 


1.83 


0.91 


31.66 


1.17 


0.58 


0.94 


I.OI 


3.14 


4.31 


3.57 


4.11 


3.48 


1.31 


0.57 


0.S7 


34.03 


0.31 


I. II 


1-47 


*-5S 


6.31 


6.3S 


3.31 


3.07 


3.41 


1.91 


1.18 


0.79 


39.49 


1.33 


1.31 


0.54 


1.89 


3.36 


353 


3.84 


5-S4 


3.16 


1.56 


3.68 


1.54 


39.37 


0.83 


0.4s 


0.37 


'•54 
1.88 


i.S8 


1.39 


1-94 


3.3s 


3.45 


0.97 


0.53 


0.44 


14.73 


0.81 


0.88 


0.63 


3.48 


3.79 


3.61 


4-37 


3-35 


3.93 


1. 13 


I.3S 


39.10 


0.40 


0.31 


0.4s 


3.04 


4.13 


1.66 


4-30 


3.97 


3.03 


0.97 


0.36 


0.93 


33.45 


0.33 


0.44 


1.37 


1.87 


3-. S3 


3.08 


5.S6 


3.79 


3-33 


3.58 


0.66 


0.05 


25.49 


0.81 


0.44 


1.13 


3.41 


3.89 


8.34) 


3.48 


3-97 


3.08 


3.00 


0.38 


0.44 


28.06 


0.70 


0.66 


1.33 


3.00 


3.56 


4.18 


3-79 


3.66 


333 


3.31 


1.07 


0.71 


27.74 



Total 

April to 

Sept. 

inch 

18.80 
31.65 
19.38 
16.51 
31.97 

33.55 

18.83 
31.43 
35.54 
18.38 
35.34 

Tel 

33.90 
30.33 
11.35 
30.38 
19-13 
30.16 
3377 

30.33 



Precipitation. — The annual average precipitation of the state as a 
whole for a period of nineteen years, 1896 to 1914 inclusive, is 27.74 
inches, and for the crop season, April to September inclusive, for twenty 
years, 1895 to 1914, is 20.33 inches. The monthly, seasonal, and 
annual averages for this period are shown in Table III. The year with 
the greatest annual rainfall was 1905, when the total was 33.10 inches. 
The driest year was 1910 with 14.73 inches. In that year the rainfall 
during the crop-growing season was 11.25 inches. 



Table IV 


Average Monthly and Annual Precipitation by Drainage 


Districts 




Watersheds 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


April 
In. 


May 
liT 


June 
In. 


July 
In. 


Aug. 
In. 


Sept 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Year 




In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In, 


In. 


Lake Superior. . 
Rainy River.... 


0.88 


0.88 


1.41 


3.05 


3.50 


4.19 


4-31 


3.73 


4.18 


3.80 


1.45 


1. 13 
0.98 


30.40 


0.94 


0.94 


1.42 


1.96 


3.10 


4.04 


3.76 


3.33 


3.98 


3.08 


1.46 


26.98 


Red River 


o.ss 


0.56 


0.98 


1.84 


2.85 


383 


3-34 


3.1a 


3.33 


I.SS 


0.72 


0.56 


33.33 


Mississippi (above 




























St. Croix). ... 


0.73 


0.70 


1.33 


3.16 


3.43 


4.13 


3.61 


3.57 


3.00 


a.39 


i.os 


0.73 


36.63 


St. Croix and Mis- 




























sissippi (below 
St. Croix).... 




























0.93 


0.95 


1.49 


3.37 


4.01 


4.46 


3.73 


3.69 


3.73 


3.73 


1.36 


1.13 


30.57 


Minnesota River 


0.79 


0.73 


1. 19 


2.30 


3.52 


4.18 


3.34 


3.44 


3.63 


3.11 


1.02 


0.79 


36.04 


Big Sioux and Des 
Moines Rivers 




























0.50 


0.54 


1.13 


3.09 


4.00 


4.39 
4.19 


3.49 
3.5s 


3.58 
3.50 


3.79 
3.03 


2.07 


0.94 
1.09 


0.63 
0.84 


36.15 


State 


0.76 


0.75 


1.35 


3.18 


3.53 


3.24 


36.90 



June is the wettest month with an average rainfall of 4.18 inches, 
and July is next with 3.79 inches. The lowest monthly rainfall is that 
of February with an average of 0.66 inch. The greatest rainfall in one 
month for the state as a whole was 8.34 inches in June, 191 4. The low- 
est rainfall for any month was .05 inch in December, 191 3. 



P£N8INA ZOZr ROSEAU 20^3" (NTER^ATlOML FAL15 TOWER ZB.^0" 








n^illllinr »iillllliir .lillllllln •liilllllli] 


JFMlMJJ/lSOND J r|M A M J J A S N D J f |m AMJJASOND JFUAMJJAS0~0 


MOORHEAD 24.94- PJRK RAPIDS ZS4-" POKEG»MA _FALL5 DULUTH 29,93' 




1 1 ' 


,„„„,|I||,,„-.^ , - .IIUb . . lllllii ". ^ .llliis ". 


..■l|iilii/ .:.nlii|i.. ..iiii|iii. •liinllUr 




MONTIVIDEO 23.43" ALEXANDRIA 2J.SS' MILACA27e5' MINNEAPOLIS 2951' 


-J- r , __ . 




— »ili»..— ,, .itil. V,- -iltiii - .llllli -f 


.^illlJii.. ..iiHlUi.. ...iilUi. ..iinllliiii 


J^FMAMJJASOND JfMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJ/JSOUO JFMAMJJASONO 


LVND 25.0r' NEW ULM 2773" ST PETER 2743" ZUMBROTA 2733" 






, lllll.,— , , lllIlL ,^ llllla -.^ ~ llllll I 


^.■lllllll.. Liliplli. ..allllillt. ...lillllli. 





FIGURE 13. DIAGRAM SHOWING COMPARATIVE MONTHLY DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION 

IN MINNESOTA. LETTERS INDICATE MONTHS, BLACK COLUMNS INDICATE 

INCHES OF RAINFALL IN EACH MONTH AT STATION NAMED 




FIGURE 14. DIAGRAM SHOWIXG MEAX MONTHLY RAINFALL AXD MEAN MONTHLY 
TEMPERATURE AT SEVER.\L STATIONS IN MINNESOTA. MONTHS ARE INDICATED BY 
THEIR FIRST LETTERS. THE GREATEST ILUNFALL IS IN THE GROWING SEASON 




■ =mean monthly rainfall, 18731913. 

^ =monthly rainfall of year of greatest rainfall recorded, 1849. 

Q irmonthly rainfall of year of least rainfall recorded, 1910. 

Solid curve = mean monthly temperature, 1871-1913- 

Dotted curve = mean monthly temperature for year of lowest annual temperature recorded, 1873. 

Dashetl curve = mean monthly temperature for year of highest annual temperature recorded, 1878, 

Horizontal dashes show absolute maximum and minimum temperatures recorded. 

FIGURE 15. DIAGRAM SHOWING RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURES (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT) 
AT ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA FROM 1837-I9I3. MONTHS ARE * 

INDICATED BY THEIR FIRST LETTERS 



39 



40 



SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 



The geographic distribution of annual and monthly precipitation is 
graphically shown in Figures 12 to 14, and for the stations having ten or 
more years of record in Table V. Table IV shows the monthly and 
annual distribution in the various watersheds. From these illustrations 
it may be seen that the precipitation is about one- fourth to one-third 
greater along the eastern boimdary of the state than along the western 
boundary. 

TabU V. Averagt Annual Precipitation in Minnesota by Stations 



Station! 



Albert Lea 

Alexandria 

Angus 

Ashby 

Beardsley 

Bird Island. .._.. .. 
Blooming Prairie... 

Caledonia 

Collegeville 

Crookston 

Detroit 

Duluth 

Fairmont (near) . . 

Faribault 

Farmington 

Fergus Falls 

Flandreau, S. D.... 

Fort Ripley 

Glencoe 

Grand Meadow . . . 
Grantsburg, Wis. . . . 

Hallock 

Halstad (Ada) .... 
International Falls. 
La Crosse, Wis.... 
Leech Lake Dam . . 

Long Prairie 

Luverne 

Lynd 

Mankato 

Mapleplain 

Milaca 

Milan 

Milbank. S. D 

Minneapolis 



County 



Freeborn . . 
Douglas . . . 

Polk 

Grant 

Bigstone . . . 
Renville . . . 

Steele 

Houston . . . 
Steams . . . 

Polk 

Becker .... 
St. Louis... 
Martin .... 

Rice 

Dakota .... 
Otter Tail. . 
Moody — . 
Crow Wing. 
McLeod . . . 
Mower .... 
Burnett . . . 
Kittson . . . 
Norman ... 
Koochiching. 
La Crosse . 

Cass 

Todd 

Rock 

Lyon 

Blue Earth. 
Hennepin . 
Mille Lacs. 
Chippewa .. 

Grant 

Hennepin .. 










t> 


rC-O 


^d 


C u 




Yr«. 


Inches 


ai 


39.90 


*S 


a3-74 


10 


19.00 


'^ 


2447 


16 


2379 


22 


24-33 


13 


27-45 


19 


33-70 


19 


aa.76 


22 


22.41 


16 


25.96 


4« 


29-93 1 


as 


28.ao 


14 


28.00 


24 


29.29 


34 


23-24 


22 


24-57 


43 


25-25 


IS 


26.64 


24 


32-59 ! 


21 


33-06 1 


'5 


21-37 1 


16 


21.37 ' 


10 


25-75 


40 


31.17 


»4 


37.00 


20 


25-17 


J5 


37.60 


19 


25-43 


14 


27.50 


J7 


31.11 


li 


27-27 i 


24-49 


SI 


22.69 


ai 


29.31 i 



Station 



Montevideo 

Moorhead 

Morris 

New London 

New Richland .... 

New Ulm 

Northfield 

Osceola, Wis 

Park Rapids 

Pembina, N. D 

Pine River Dam... 

Pipestone 

Pokegama Fails .... 

Red Wing 

Redwood Falls .... 
Reeds Landing . . . 

St. Charles 

St. Cloud 

St. Paul 

St. Peter 

Sandy Lake Dam... 

Shakopee 

i Tonka 

Tower (Ely) 

Two Harbors 

University, N. D... 
Virginia (Mt. Iron) 

Wabasha 

Wahpeton, N. D... 

Willmar 

Willow River 

Winnebago 

Winnibigoshish .... 

Winona 

Worthington 














V 


County 








:3Ji 


<^& 


Yrs. 


Inches 


Chippewa .. 


33 


23.50 


Clay 


31 


24.92 


Stevens . . . 


37 


23.23 


Kandiyohi. . 


18 


23.6a 


Waseca 


10 


2991 


i Brown 


32 


27.74 


t Rice 


13 


29.92 


Polk 


31 


32.13 


Hubbard ... 


22 


25.71 


i Pembina . . 


14 


19.79 


Crow Wing. 


25 


27.52 


Pipestone .. 


13 


34.18 


Itasca 


25 


37.63 


Goodhue . . 


16 


31.71 


Redwood . . 


13 


24.65 


Wabasha . . 


16 


29.31 


Winona . . . 


31 


30.68 


Sherburne . 


19 


37.6S 


Ramsey . . . 


41 


38.68 


Nicollet . . . 


18 


37.89 


Aitkin 


19 


26.47 


Scott 


15 


a8.8s 


Hennepin.. . 


13 


30.54 


St. Louis. .. 


10 


28.17 


Lake 


18 


30.56 


j Grand Forks 


30 


20.47 


St. Louis... 


18 


30.74 


Wabasha .. 


17 


30.54 


Richland . . 


30 


23.67 


Kandiyohi.. 


10 


25.54 
39.95 


Pine 


10 


Faribault . . 


»4 


30.sf 


Itasca 


25 


35.66 


, Winona . . . 


16 


29.63 


Nobles .... 


17 


38.24 



Figure 14 makes an interesting comparison of monthly and annual 
values of both temperature and rainfall at certain selected representative 
stations. 

Snowfall. — The snowfall averages from 24 to 54 inches. It is lightest 
in the southwest portion of the state and heaviest on the Mesabi Iron 
Range. The monthly and annual averages are shown in Table VI, ar- 
ranged according to sections and drainage districts. 

Winds. — ^The prevailing winds are from the northwest over most of 
the state. The monthly and annual prevailing directions are shown for 
a large group of stations in Table VII. The average hourly wind ve- 
Icxrity is shown for six regular Weather Bureau stations and three special 
stations in Table VIII. 



CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF MINNESOTA 
Table VI. Average Snowfall 



41 



Stations 



I.ahe of the Woods 
Group — 

Tower 

Red River Valley Group— 

St. Vincent-Pembina . 

Crookston 

Moorhead 

Upper Mississippi River 
Valley Group — 

Park Rapids 

Lake WinnibigoshisH. . 

Sandy Lake Uam .... 
Lake Superior Group — 

Mt. Iron 

Duluth 

Lower Mississippi River 
Valley Grouf— 

La Crosse, Wis 

Grand Meadow 

St. Charles 

Red Wing 

St. Paul 

Lower Minnesota River 
Valley Group— 

Shakopee 

St. Peter 

Winnebago 

Middle Mississippi River 
and St. Croix Valleys 
Group — _ 

Minneapolis 

Collegeville 

Pine River Dam 

Osceola, Wis 

Grantsburg, Wis 

Upper Minnesota River 
Valley Group — 

New Ulm 

Bird Island 

Milan 

Minnesota River Water' 
shed Group — 

New London 

Long^ Prairie 

Morris 

Fergus Falls 

Southwestern Group— 

Fairmont 

Worthington 

Lynd 

Gary, S. D 





u 
rj 

3 
B 
a 

1—1 


3 
;-. 





< 


^ 

s 


u 

a 
3 




01 

3 
be 
3 
< 


u 


Jj 
B 


a 

V 


u 

u 
.a 

<J 




u 

.Q 

a 

> 





Yrs. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


9 


9.0 


8.6 


10.9 


4.a 


0.6 











0.3 


0.4 


8.4 


8.3 


14 


8.4 


S.I 


6.9 


5.3 


0.7 











0.1 


0.7 


57 


6.4 


14 


6..1 


6.7 


8.8 


3.» 


3.0 











1'. 


0.4 


4.5 


5-7 


»7 


7.6 


6.7 


8.9 


4-9 


0.3 











0.1 


1.0 


6.9 


6.8 


14 


9.0 


6.S 


9.1 


54 


0.9 











0.3 


1.4 


7.4 


6.3 


14 


8.6 


6.5 


9.9 


3.3 


0.8 











T. 


1.0 


7.8 


7.8 


»4 


9.0 


9.S 


10.6 


3.6 


0.7 











0.3 


I.I 


7-4 


7.4 


13 


9-9 


7.8 


11.3 


3.9 


I I 











0.1 


0.8 


8.1 


II. 6 


as 


10.3 


9« 


II. I 


4.0 


1.0 











0.1 


0.3 


8.3 


8.7 


IS 


8.4 


8.7 


6.6 


1.4 


T. 











T. 


0.1 


3-9 


8.9 


14 


8.0 


9.8 


99 


3.1 


0.4 











r. 


0.3 


5.3 


9.3 


9 


7-7 


9-4 


9-5 


3.4 


0.3 














0.1 


4.3 


9-3 


8 


8.0 


S.6 


4.4 


1.8 


0.3 











T. 


0.3 


I..S 


7.1 


'4 


7.7 


6.3 


8.8 


3.6 


0.3 











T. 


0.3 


4.7 


5-7 


14 


7-7 


8.1 


7.8 


1-9 


T. 











T. 


0.4 


3.0 


4.6 


13 


S-.S 


6.1 


7.1 


0.7 


1'. 














0.4 


1-4 


f 


10 


6.5 


7-5 


6.3 


i.o 


T 











T. 


0.3 


3.3 


6.5 


18 


8..1 


8.6 


9.S 


4.0 


03 











T. 


0.3 


4.5 


6.4 


14 


6.7 


S.6 


8.S 


1.8 


0.4 











T. 


0.3 


3-5 


5-2 


14 


9-1 


8.4 


9.5 


3.8 


3.8 











0.1 


0.6 


5.9 


6.8 


II 


9.1 


8.4 


11.7 


3.8 


T. 











T. 


0.1 


5-5 


6.8 


II 


9.2 


9.0 


13.3 


4.a 


o.x 














0.1 


8.S 


8.9 


»4 


8.9 


'•5 


9.S 


1-7 


0.3 











T. 


0.3 


J.S 


4-4 


U 


4-7 


s-"* 


60 


i.S 


0.4 











T. 


0.5 


3S 


3.4 


14 


7-5 


8.1 


II. 3 


1.6 


Ct 











1'. 


0.6 


4-1 


6.1 


14 


4.6 


4.a 


7.0 


1-7 


O.I 














0.3 


a.7 


3.4 


14 


5-7 


S.5 


l:t 


a.4 


0.4 











1'. 


0.3 


3.3 


4-4 


>4 


S-a 


S.4 


3.1 


0.5 














0.6 


3.3 


4-4 


13 


6.3 


5.7 


7.6 


3.8 


0.4 











T. 


1.0 


5-7 


5.8 


13 


•S.o 


lO.O 


88 


1.9 


O.I 











T. 


0.3 


3.9 


S.3 


13 


4.1 


7» 


7.6 


1.3 


T. 














0.3 


3.7 


3.6 


«4 


6.3 


5.1 


7.4 


3.8 


o.s 











T. 


1.3 


3.8 


5.3 


II 


4-4 


6.6 


13.4 


4-5 


0.3 











T. 


1.3 


4-3 


4.1 



In. 



So.s 

39.a 
3S.8 
43-7 



46.1 
45-7 
49-4 

54.4 

sa.a 



37.1 
46.1 
43.9 
38.9 
37. » 



33.5 

35.3 
30.4 



4a.4 
31.8 
44.0 

44-4 
53.3 



36.0 
35.8 
397 



34.0 
39.3 
39.3 
3S.« 

3S.a 
36.7 
31.4 
37.6 



Relative humidity. — The average annual humidity for the state is 
83 per cent at 7 a.m. and 72 per cent at 7 p.m. Table IX gives the monthly 
and annual data. 

Number of rainy days. — In Table X the number of rainy days dur- 
ing each month and the year is given for thirty-three stations well dis- 
tributed over the state. The smallest number is 64 at Lynd, Lyon County, 
and the largest 132 days at Duluth. 

Sunshine. — The sunshine is abundant, averaging from 43 to 53 per 
cent of the highest amount possible. The daylight hours are materially 
longer during the crop-growing season in the northern portion of the 
state than in the southern. The greatest percentage of sunshine is in 
the southwestern portion and the least in the northeastern part. 



42 



SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Table VII. Prevailing Wind Direction 



Stations 




u 

a 
3 
G 
vs 
•-> 


u 

3 
u 


J3 
u 
1-1 


< 




V 

p 
s 




3 

1 


u 

V 

B 

V 

S. 

u 


.a 

o 

6 


u 
u 

> 
o 

!z; 


u 
u 

% 

u 
u 

V 

Q 




Lake of the Woods 






















Group — 






























Tower 


9 


nw. 


w. 


nw. 


w. 


w. 


w. 


w. 


W. 


w. 


w. 


w. 


nw. 


w. 


Red River Valley Group — 






























St. Vincent-Pembina . . 


23 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


s. 


se. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


Crookston 


14 


s. 


nw. 


s. 


n. 


nw. 


s. 


sw. 


se. 


nw. 


s. 


s. 


nw. 


8. 


Moorhead 


28 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


n. 


n. 


se. 


s. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


nw. 


nw. 


n. 


Upper Mississif'pi River 






























Valley Group — 






























Park Rapids . 

Lake Winnibigoshish. . 


l6 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


s. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


i6 


nw. 


nw. 


w. 


nw. 


nw. 


w. 


w. 


w. 


w. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


Sandy Lake Dam 


14 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


e. 


e. 


nw. 


nw. 


8. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


Lake Superior Group — 






























Mt lion 


.1 


nw. 
sw. 


n. 
nw. 


n. 
ne. 


n. 
ne. 


n. 
ne. 


s. 
ne. 


s. 
ne. 


n. 
ne. 


8. 

ne. 


s. 
ne. 


nw. 
sw. 


nw. 
sw. 


n. 


Duluth 


ne. 


Lower Mississippi River 






























Valley Group — 






























La Crosse, Wis 


.16 


8. 


8. 


n. 


8. 


8. 


8. 


s. 


s. 


8. 


8. 


s. 


8. 


8. 


Grand Meadow 


IS 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


s. 


8. 


8. 


SW. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


St Charles 


13 

13 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


se. 
nw. 


se. 
se. 


nw. 
e. 


se. 
se. 


se. 
sw. 


nw. 
w. 


8. 

e. 


se. 
w. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 


Red Wing 


nw. 


St. Paul 


38 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


nw. 


nw. 


ae. 


Lower Minnesota River 






























Valley Group — 






























Shakopee 


«4 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


se. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


St. Peter 


13 
9 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
se. 


nw. 

se. 


se. 
se. 


nw. 
se. 


8. 

se. 


nw. 
se. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 


Winnebago 

Middle Mississippi River 


nw. 






























and St. Croix Valleys 






























Group — 
































i8 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
s. 


ne. 
nw. 


8. 

sw. 


8. 

s. 


8. 

nw. 


8. 

S. 


8. 

nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 




nw. 


Pine River Dam 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


w. 


w. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


Osceola, Wis 


II 


s. 


s. 


n. 


n. 


8. 


8. 


8. 


8. 


s. 


n. 


n. 


s. 


8. 


Grantsburg, Wis 


II 


nw. 


nw. 


sw. 


se. 


ne. 


sw. 


SW. 


8W. 


8W. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


Upper Minnesota River 






























Vallev Group — 
































14 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


a. 

nw. 
nw. 


8. 

nw. 
se. 


8. 

nw. 
se. 


s. 
nw. 
se. 


8. 

nw. 
nw. 


8. 

nw. 
se. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 




nw. 


Milan 


nw. 


Minnesota River Water- 






















^ 








shed Group — 






























New London 


14 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


se. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


Long Prairie 


14 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


se. 


nw. 


nw. 


se. 


se. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 


nw. 




17 
13 


nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 


8. 

nw. 


s. 
se. 


8. 

se. 


8. 

se. 


8. 

nw. 


s. 
se. 


8. 

nw. 


s. 
nw. 


n. 
nw. 


8. 

nw. 


t. 


Fergus Falls 

Southwestern Group — 


nw. 
































IS 

13 
14 
II 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 

s. 

nw. 

sw. 


nw. 
nw. 
se. 
se. 


8. 

nw. 

nw. 
se. 


8. 

nw. 
sw. 

se. 


nw. 
nw. 

nw. 

s. 


8. 

nw. 
nw. 
ne. 


nw. 
nw. 
sw. 
sw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 
nw. 


nw. 
nw. 
nw. 

nw. 


nw. 




nw. 




nw. 


Gary, S. D 


nw. 



Table VIII. Average Hourly Wind Velocity in Miles 



Stations 


V V 

►J ^ 


3 

a 

rt 


•s 




0, 
< 




V 


"3 

•-> 


< 


u 

1 

1 


u 

1 




1 
s 


2 


u 

1 

u 

u 

Q 


•a 

a 

< 


Duluth 


5 


14-3 


14.2 


15-0 


IS. I 


15.2 


II.6 


1 1.3 


12.0 


12.7 


13-9 


14.1 


14.2 


13.6 


Moorhead 


19 


10.3 


lo.s 


II-3 


12.0 


10.7 


lO.O 


8.3 


8.4 


10.4 


10.4 


10. 1 


10. 


10.2 


St.Vinc'nt-Pembina 


15 


7-7 


9.4 


lO.O 


10.7 


lO.O 


8.7 


7.5 


7..S 


9.1 


9-3 


9-5 


8.9 


9.2 


Two Harbors 


6 


9.0 


8.2 


9.7 


9.4 


7.6 


7-4 


7.3 


7?, 


8.0 


8.3 


8.7 


8.9 


8.3 


La Crosse, Wis.. . 


^b 


7.1 


7-S 


8.0 


8..S 


7.5 


6.7 


6.0 


S.8 


6.9 


7.5 


75 


7' 


7-» 


St. Paul 


^6 


7.« 


8.3 


8.8 


9-3 


8.7 


7.7 


7-1 


7-1 


8.0 


8.5 


8.1 


7.8 


8.1 


Minneapolis 

Faribault 


i8 


ii.S 


11.6 


12.3 


12.8 


I2.I 


10.3 


9-9 


9.9 


II. 6 


'.V?. 


II.O 


II. 2 


1 1.3 


7 


9-4 


9.1 


9.4 


II.O 


9.0 


7-3 


5.9 


6.4 


7.8 


8.8 


9.0 


9.1 


8.S 


CoUegeville 


II 


9-5 


9.6 


II.O 


12.2 


II. I 


1 0.0 


9-4 


9.4 


10.9 


9.5 


9-9 


9.9 


10.3 



CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF MINNESOTA 



43 



Table IX. Mean Relative Humidity in Degrees 



Stations 



Duluth (8 a.m. 

) 8 p.m. 
Moorhead T 8 a.m. 

1 8 p.m. 
St. Vincent J 8 a.m. 

( 8 p.m. 
La Crosse, Wis. ..8a.m. 
St. Paul (8 a.m. 

( 8 p.m. 
Minneapolis 8 p.m. 



ot 




>. 





















u 


►J ^- 


>> 

u 
a 

a 
c 


CD 

s 

b 
U 


JS 
u 
u 
c« 


< 


1^ 


V 

a 
3 




3 
< 


B 

V 

0. 

V 


u 


J3 


6 


J3 

s 




.a 

B 
u 
u 
u 

a 


21 


83 


83 


81 


76 


76 


79 


79 


81 


82 


81 


83 


84 


21 


77 


75 


71 


6S 


64 


69 


65 


69 


71 


72 


76 


78 


21 


«9 


88 


88 


84 


79 


84 


86 


87 


87 


84 


89 


89 


21 


86 


86 


83 


6s 


56 


62 


II 


61 


63 


69 


81 


85 


4 


8o 


80 


88 


88 


79 


ti 


90 


87 


89 


89 


87 


4 


as 


86 


88 


77 


58 


71 


70 


71 


78 


89 


89 


21 


8.3 


83 


79 


74 


75 


79 


81 


85 


85 


81 


81 


83 


21 


«4 


«4 


81 


75 


75 


79 


79 


83 


83 


8i 


81 


83 


21 


7b 


75 


68 


55 


54 


58 


55 


56 


60 


63 


69 


76 


7 


83 


79 


76 


66 


66 


67 


6S 


68 


73 


73 


79 


83 



81 
71 

86 
73 
86 
77 
81 
81 
64 
74 



Table X. Number of Days with o.oi Inch or More of Precipitation 



Stations 



Lake of the Woods 
Group — 

Tower 

Eed River Valley Group — 

St. Vincent-Pembina.. . 

Crookston 

Moorhead 

Upper Mississippi River 
Valley Group — 

Park Rapids 

Lake Winnibigoshish. . . 

Sandy Lake Dam 

Lake Superior Group — 

Mt. Iron 

Duluth . 

Lower Mississippi River 
Valley Group — 

La Crosse, Wis 

Grand Meadow 

St. Charles 

Red Wing 

St. Paul 

Lower Minnesota River 
Valley Group — 

Shakopee 

St. Peter , . 

Winnebago 

Middle Mississippi River 
and St. Croix Valleys 
Group — _ 

Minneapolis 

Collegeville 

Pine River Dam 

Osceola, Wis 

Grantsburg, Wis 

Upper Minnesota River 
Valley Group — 

New Uim 

Bird Island 

Milan 

Minnesota River Water- 
shed Group — 

New London 

Long_ Prairie 

Morris 

Fergus Falls 

Southwestern Group — 

Fairmont 

Worthington 

Lynd 

Gary, S. D 



•s " 


1 


>. 














S3 




ki 
u 


u 




1"° 


>> 
u 

3 
C 
rt 

•-> 


3 

1 


.a 


0, 
< 


& 

S 


V 

a 

3 


>> 

•3 


3 
< 


a 

V 

0. 
u 


ki 

.a 


s 


1 

12; 


1 


V 

Q 


1 

a 


9 


5 


4 


6 


5 


8 


9 


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44 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

The precipitation in the area embraced in the present report, as shown 
in Figure 12, increases from northwest to southeast, being about 25 
inches in the northwest part and over 32 inches in the southeast. Although 
there is an increase on approaching Lake Superior the influence of the 
lake in increasing precipitation near its shore seems to be very slight, 
for in parts of Minnesota farther south where there is no lake influence 
a similar increase in the amount of precipitation is found in passing from 
northwest to southeast. 



CHAPTER III 

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 
IN THE SOUTH HALF OF MINNESOTA 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The area embraced in this report extends from the median line of the 
state, about latitude 46° 25', southward to the Iowa state line. It em- 
braces about 40,000 square miles, including lakes. It is largely tributary 
to the Mississippi River, there being only about 3,550 square miles, or 
less than 9 per cent drained by other streams. Of this, 60 to 70 square 
miles in the northeast comer of Pine County drains northeastward to 
Lake Superior; about 1,840 square miles is tributary to Red River of 
the North; and 1,650 square miles is drained southwestward to the Mis- 
souri River. In the Mississippi drainage about 15,000 square miles falls 
within the Minnesota River watershed, and over 21,000 square miles in 
the main stream and other tributaries of the Mississippi. Part of this is 
drained by the Des Moines, Cedar, and upper Iowa rivers across Iowa to 
the Mississippi, while the St. Croix River flows along the border of the 
state to its jimction with the Mississippi. 

The altitude of the south half of the state has a range of about 1,350 
feet, the lowest being 615 feet, at the southeast comer of the state, and 
the highest 1,950 to 1,975 feet, in high points on the Coteau des Prairies 
in the southwest part. The average altitude is not far from 1,200 feet. 
Only a small part aside from river valleys is below 1,000 feet, and only 
a small part above 1,500 feet. 

The average rainfall ranges from less than 24 inches, in the western 
part, to 30 to 32 inches in the eastern (Figure 12). The rainfall is 
largely in the crop-growing season, and is usually sufficient for the proper 
maturing of all the crops. 

As indicated in the discussion of the general features of the state, 
the topographic and agricultural conditions are quite varied. It may, 
therefore, be of advantage to outline briefly certain of the characteristics 
of each of the several classes of land, beginning with the driftless area, 
and taking up the several drifts and associated deposits in order of their 
age and the alluvial deposits of the present streams. 

DRIFTLESS AREA 

The portion of Minnesota falling within the driftless area of the 
upper Mississippi valley is confined to Houston County and the eastern 
part of Winona County. In this area the uplands have a residuary clay 
covering. the rock to a depth of a few feet, above which there is a deposit 



46 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

of wind borne silt-loam (loess) having a depth of lo to 15 feet or more. 
This loess extends down on the gentle slopes from the crests of the 
divides between the streams, leaving only the steeper part of the slopes 
with rock exposed. This area is, therefore, rendered more productive 
by the presence of the deposit of loess which has buried the less produc- 
tive residuary clays beneath it. The steep parts of the slopes which are 
difficult to till are utilized to a large degree for pasture. 

LOESS-COVERED PRE-WISCONSIN GRAY DRIFT 

Pebbly border. — For several miles back from the eastern limits of 
the old drift there are usually only scattered pebbles and occasional 
bowlders to mark the former extent of glaciation. The topography is 
indistinguishable from that of the driftless area, and the glaciation was 
usually so weak that the preglacial residuary clay is still present on the 
rock formation. A sheet of loess covers the pebbles to a depth of 10 to 
15 feet or more, and it is this which gives the productiveness to the 
soil. A considerable part of Wabasha County, western Winona County, 
eastern Olmsted County, eastern Fillmore County, and western Houston 
County falls within the limits of this pebble and bowlder area. Rock 
bluflfs are about as conspicuous as in the driftless area, but the valleys 
of tributaries of the Mississippi are narrower than on the lower courses 
of the streams in the driftless area proper. 

Old gray till (Kansan). — The loess overlaps for a few miles the east- 
em edge of heavy deposits of an old calcareous till. This was leached 
to a depth of several feet before the deposition of the loess, and is usually 
oxidized to a yellowish brown color to a depth of 15 to 20 feet. When of 
greater thickness, it retains the original bluish gray color. Eastern Good- 
hue County, southwestern Wabasha County, western Olmsted County, 
northeastern Dodge County, and part of the western half of Fillmore 
County, have thick deposits of old drift beneath the loess. The loess, 
however, is so heavy a deposit as a rule that the crops are dependent upon 
it rather than upon the underlying drift. The amount of this drift is 
sufficient to reduce greatly the roughness of the surface. 

There is an area of the old gray drift in the southwest corner of the 
state in Rock, Pipestone, and Nobles counties, of which about 170 square 
miles in the extreme southwest comer of the state, were covered by a 
deposit of loess to several feet in depth, or of sufficient thickness to en- 
tirely sustain the crops. This gives place on the north and east somewhat 
abruptly to a thin coating of wind drifted silt a few inches to 2 or 3 feet 
in depth which is not included in the area mapped as loess on the map 
of the surface formations of Minnesota. Much of the deposit is probably 
derived from the loess, but the silt is mixed to some extent with sand 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 47 

grains and small pebbles from the underlying till. It appears to have 
been deposited by winds that were dragging the surface and transporting 
coarse and fine grains gathered from bare or exposed surfaces of loess 
or till, a process still in operation. The typical loess, on the other hand, 
is a very uniform deposit, such as might result from the settling of dust 
which had been held in the atmosphere. It is not always feasible to draw 
a definite line or boundary between the deposits, but the map sets forth 
the approximate extent of the typical loess. 

The drift is sufficient in southwest Minnesota to fill the preglacial 
valleys, but some of the more prominent quartzite ridges stand above the 
general level of this drift filling. Parts of these ridges are entirely bare, 
but they seem likely to have formerly carried a coating of drift which has 
been removed by erosion, for the glaciated surfaces of the rocks fre- 
quently have the striae well preserved. This could hardly be the case 
if they had been exposed to weathering ever since the ice disappeared 
from this region. The depth of leaching in this old drift is much less 
than in southeastern Minnesota, being usually but 2 to 3 feet or even less. 
The difference seems attributable in part at least to the smaller rainfall 
and a lesser amount of downward penetration of water in southwestern 
Minnesota. 

OLD GRAY DRIFT (KANSAN), WITH LITTLE OR NO LOESS COVER 

Immediately west of the loess covered area in southeastern Minne- 
sota is an old gray drift with little or no silt cover over it, which extends 
westward and passes under the young or Wisconsin gray drift of south- 
ern Minnesota. From the state line northward across Mower, Dodge, 
western Goodhue, eastern Rice, and southwestern Dakota counties, it is 
very largely composed of clayey till which has been leached of its lime 
to a depth of several feet, and oxidized to a depth of about 15 feet, below 
which it retains the original bluish gray color. It has been termed in 
the earlier reports of the Minnesota Geological Survey the old gray 
drift. A large part of it appears to be of Kansan age, and its surface 
was greatly eroded subsequent to the Kansan glaciation. 

lOWAN DRIFT OVER KANSAN DRIFT 

The southeast part of Minnesota and the northeast part of Iowa 
include an area which differs somewhat from Kansan drift areas farther 
south. The general depth of leaching is less than in those areas, and the 
surface of the drift is not so deeply reddened by oxidation. The valleys 
in this area are in some cases mere swales without definite bluffs, and as 
a rule they are shallower than in the Kansan drift areas to the south. 
There are knolls on the slopes and on the valley bottoms, which in some 



48 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

cases seem to have been deposited in the form of knolls rather than de- 
veloped by erosion of material around them. In a few places in north- 
eastern Iowa an old soil, which is thought by some geologists to be at the 
top of the Kansan drift, has over it a thin drift deposit, usually 5 to 10 
feet or less in depth. 

These features have led certain geologists to think that a readvance 
of ice into this region took place at a time between the Kansan and Wis- 
consin stages of glaciation. Opinion is divided as to whether this read- 
vance took place at the Illinoian stage of glaciation or at some later time 
more nearly contemporaneous with the main loess deposition. Pending 
the solution of this matter, and the full determination of the significance 
of the peculiar features just mentioned, a special name, lowan, has been 
applied to it. Because of the vagueness of the features the limits of the 
lowan drift, or the extent of lowan glaciation, are matters on which 
there is wide difiference of opinion. 

So far as the Minnesota area has been affected by such a post-Kansan 
glaciation, the effect on crop conditions is likely to be slight. There has 
been, perhaps, a slight removal of the leached and weathered surface of 
the Kansan drift in exposed situations, and redeposition of this material 
in the valleys and depressions. The valleys of this problematical area 
often head in shallow draws or sloughs which are wet and ill-drained, 
but the district is entirely free from lakes and inclosed basins such as 
abound in the later or Wisconsin drift region. Aside from the sloughs 
just mentioned the drainage is naturally good. 

OLD RED DRIFT (ILLINOIAN), OVER OLD GRAY DRIFT (KANSAN) 

In central and eastern Dakota County, northern Goodhue County, 
and southeastern Washington County, the Kansan or old gray drift has 
been covered by drift of a somewhat different constitution and color, 
made up largely of the classes of rock found in the red drift of western 
Wisconsin and like that apparently deposited by ice from the north or 
northeast. The clayey portions usually have a red color which is strik- 
ingly in contrast with the yellowish brown color of the underlying Kansan 
drift. It is markedly more weathered than the red drift of Wisconsin 
age but corresponds in degree of weathering to the Illinoian drift. 

This old red drift is generally very stony and it seldom assumes a 
clayey constitution. It is usually but a few feet in depth, and scarcely 
makes a continuous cover over the Kansan drift. It includes, however, a 
prominent range of gravelly hills in southern Dakota County which ex- 
tends from near Hampton southeastward for several miles in a strip 
about 2 miles in width. This line of hills has the appearance of a ter- 
minal moraine, and there is a somewhat knolly surface eastward from it 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 49 

into northern Goodhue County and northward to Etter, which may mark 
the continuation of an ice border. 

This old red drift is an extensive outlying deposit in western Wiscon- 
sin, but its exposure in Minnesota seems confined to the parts of the three 
counties above named. 

YOUNG OR WISCONSIN RED DRIFT (PATRICIAN ICE SHEET) 

The young Patrician red drift of the eastern part of this area has 
been so overridden by later deposits from the Superior lobe of the Lab- 
rador ice field, and those of the Keewatin ice field, that it is exposed only 
in detached areas. One of these areas occupies much of Washington and 
Ramsey counties and the northern part of Dakota County. It comprises 
moraines of considerable strength having a stony clayey till, the soil being 
a stony loam. Associated with the moraines are small outwash plains 
of gravel and sand in the district north of the Mississippi River, and 
more extensive outwash plains along and south of the Mississippi River, 
a considerable part of central and northeastern Dakota County being 
occupied by these plains. 

This strong system of moraines is traceable westward beneath the 
young gray drift across northern Scott County and the district north of 
the Minnesota valley in Carver, Hennepin, and Wright counties to where 
it emerges in Stearns County on the north side of the Grantsburg lobe 
of the young gray drift. It runs thence northward across central Stearns 
and eastern Todd counties, and thence northeastward across northwest- 
ern Morrison County into Cass County, where it passes beyond the limits 
of the area here discussed. It has been encroached upon slightly in 
Stearns and Todd counties by the later advance of the Keewatin ice field, 
but a large portion of it is still exposed to view. It is generally com- 
posed of a very stony clay with stony loam soil. 

To the east of this morainic system, occupying much of Morrison, 
Benton, Mille Lacs, Kanabec, and Pine counties, there is a relatively 
smooth district of the red Patrician drift, largely till plain, but traversed 
by a few narrow morainic ridges and including also a few gravel ridges 
or eskers. The till is a stony clay and often is thickly strewn with 
bowlders. The clay, however, is of sufficient amount to give a heavier 
soil than that in the moraines. This is likely to become an important grass 
growing area and dairy district. A large part of it is as yet very poorly 
developed, for it was occupied by a mixed coniferous and hardwood 
forest which was difficult to clear. 

Another strong morainic system of the red Patrician drift sweeps 
around the west and south sides of Mille Lacs Lake and runs eastward 
across southern Aitkin and northwestern Pine counties, and there passes 



50 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

beneath the drift of the Superior lobe a few miles south of the north 
limits of the area under discussion. This morainic system has a width of 
4 to 8 miles and is composed largely of stony clayey till with stony loam 
soil. Outwash plains of gravel and sand border it on the west in Crow 
Wing County and are included among its ridges in northwestern Pine 
County. 

North and east of Mille Lacs Lake is a till plain of red Patrician 
drift extending eastward and passing beneath the moraines of the Su- 
perior lobe in the southern part of Aitkin County. As yet this till plain 
is very thinly settled, but its soil is suitable for pasture and meadows, 
like that of the till plain to the south of the moraine which borders the 
west and south sides of Mille Lacs Lake. 

In the till plain in Morrison, Benton, and Mille Lacs counties the 
young red drift is so thin that the courses of the interglacial valleys are 
still traceable. These valleys were cut in the old gray drift which under- 
lies that part of Minnesota at least as far east as Mille Lacs Lake. 

YOUNG OR WISCONSIN RED DRIFT (LABRADORIAN ICE SHEET) 

The Superior ice lobe of the Labrador field extended but a few miles 
south of the median line of the state in northern Pine and southern Aitkin 
counties. Its border runs east to west across the northern part of Pine 
County, and its moraines cross the moraines of the red Patrician drift at 
a slight angle, the course of the Patrician moraines being there south- 
westward. There are extensive swampy areas at the terminus of the 
lobe in southern Aitkin County, with occasional knolls scattered through 
them, and outside of this to the west a sandy plain which seems to be an 
outwash from the ice lobe. Narrow till plains are inclosed between the 
constituent ridges of the moraines of the Superior lobe. There are also 
numerous swamps interrupting the morainic ridges all along their course 
across Pine County. The moraines are also interrupted by a gravelly 
plain extending northward from Willow River past Sturgeon Lake which 
seems to have been a main line of discharge from the Superior ice lobe 
down Kettle River to the St. Croix and the Mississippi. 

The drift of the Superior lobe within this area is largely of clayey till 
with scarcely as many stones as characterize the Patrician drift. Its 
soil is, however, a stony loam. 

BORDER OF YOUNG GRAY DRIFT (KEEWATIN ICE SHEET) IN CENTRAL 

MINNESOTA 

There is a narrow strip running southward through western Cass, 
eastern Wadena, and central Todd counties in which the old gray drift 
is near the surface and has over it a deposit which contains some rocks 
such as abound in the red drift. The presence of such drift suggests 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 51 

that the Patrician ice may have extended over that area. There are in- 
dications also that the Keewatin ice field in later Wisconsin time covered 
the same area for the greater part, but without making a heavy deposit. 
The surface material is a mixture of rocks of red drift in gray drift 
which might have been produced by the incorporating of the pre- Wis- 
consin gray drift with the Wisconsin red drift of the Patrician ice field. 
Or it might have been produced by the encroachment of the Keewatin 
ice on the thin edge of the red drift and incorporation of that drift in 
the Wisconsin gray drift. That the latter seems to have been the case 
is inferred from certain peculiarities of topography. The surface pre- 
sents a peculiarly smooth appearance as far east as the edge of the strong 
moraine of red drift which runs through eastern Todd County, and the 
smoothness in places runs up a slope to that moraine. There is no un- 
certainty of the presence of the Keewatin ice to within a few miles of the 
west base of the strong red drift moraine, for a definite sheet of young 
gray drift is found at the surface in the western part of Todd and 
Wadena counties, and westward from there. The small amount of red 
drift that is incorporated with the gray in the district west of the promi- 
nent red drift moraine has had but little effect upon the character of the 
soil. It is somewhat more stony than the unmodified gray drift, but has 
nearly as great fertility as the gray drift ordinarily possesses. 

There are narrow morainic ridges of the young gray drift in south- 
western Todd and eastern Douglas counties, but a large part of the sur- 
face is a relatively smooth plain. In Wadena and eastern Otter Tail 
counties, there are extensive gravel plains which were largely formed as 
an outwash from the strong moraines farther west. In western Stearns 
County a moraine of considerable strength follows down Sauk River, 
being south of the river from Sauk Center to New Munich and north 
of the river from there eastward to Cold Spring, beyond which it is 
merged with later moraines considered below. On either side of this 
moraine there are till plains with a thin cover of young gray drift. The 
plain on the northeast extends to the base of the strong moraine of red 
drift, above discussed, and in places the young gray drift is found veneer- 
ing the slopes of the red drift moraine ; a condition which shows clearly 
that the Keewatin invasion here culminated after the Patrician ice had 
begun to recede. 

BORDER OF YOUNG GRAY DRIFT IN SOUTHWESTERN MINNESOTA 

In southwestern Minnesota, as in central Minnesota, there is a thin 
sheet of relatively young gray drift, forming a veneer over the eroded 
surface of the old gray drift, which lies outside the well defined moraines 
of Wisconsin drift. It covers the southwest corner of Lincoln County 



52 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

and a large part of Pipestone County, the southwest corner of Murray, 
the northeast corner of Rock, and a considerable area in western Nobles 
County. It is so thin a deposit that the interglacial valleys cut in the old 
gray drift are but partially filled and are followed in large part by the 
modem streams. It contains a mixture of old gray drift with the young 
gray drift, and masses of the old are often included in this younger 
deposit, and are easily recognized by the high degree of staining and 
oxidation as compared with that of the young drift which incloses them. 
This border district lies outside the limits of a moraine which has been 
considered by Upham as the limit of the later or Wisconsin drift. It 
differs from that inside the limits of that moraine in having few un- 
drained basins or depressions. In the latter district the interglacial lines 
of drainage were more completely filled with the younger drift than in 
that outside the moraine, so that drainage lines are more generally opened 
in new courses instead of following the lines of interglacial valleys. In 
the opinion of the present writers, the drift which veneers the eroded 
district outside the moraine is not markedly older than that of the 
moraine which Upham interpreted to be the outer limits of the younger 
drift, and should, therefore, be included with it. 

MORAINES OF SOUTHWESTERN MINNESOTA 

A series of strong moraines was formed on the southwest side of 
the Keewatin ice field in the Wisconsin stage. The outermost of these 
moraines is the one traced by Upham. It follows the crest of the Coteau 
des Prairies across Lincoln, Pipestone, Murray, and Nobles counties. It 
consists of a single ridge as far south as Chandler in Murray County, 
but from there southward to the state line it has two members separated 
by a narrow till plain. 

Between this moraine and the next younger morainic system there 
is a narrow till plain in Lincoln County, but it widens out in Murray, 
Nobles, and Jackson counties and has a width of nearly 30 miles in 
northeastern Nobles and northwestern Jackson counties. It narrows 
again on approaching the state line. 

The morainic system east of this plain is very strong and complex. 
Its several constituent morainic ridges are either merged together or 
closely associated throughout their course in southwestern Minnesota. 
They traverse western Yellow Medicine, northeastern Lincoln, south- 
western Lyon, northeastern Murray, southwestern Cottonwood, and cen- 
tral Jackson counties, and occupy a belt from 8 to 16 miles wide. They 
all lie along the northeast slope of the Coteau des Prairies, so that the 
inner ones are at a lower altitude than the outer ones. 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 53 

These moraines are composed largely of clayey till, but include occa- 
sional gravel knolls and the till in places becomes very stony. The plains 
associated with these moraines have a rich black loam soil. 

MORAINES OF SOUTHEASTERN MINNESOTA 

From the state line northward to the Minnesota River in a belt em- 
bracing much of Freeborn, Steele, Waseca, Rice, eastern Le Sueur, and 
Scott counties there is a morainic system which was formed on the east 
side of the Keewatin ice field at the Wisconsin stage of glaciation, and 
which apparently is the equivalent of the entire series of moraines on the 
west side just noted. There is also to the east of the outermost strong 
moraine a narrow strip of Wisconsin drift in which the surface is nearly 
all plane and the drift thin. 

In Scott and Rice and eastern Le Sueur counties the moraines are all 
bunched together with only narrow strips of till plain among them. But 
to the southward in Steele and Freeborn counties the till plains between 
the moraines in places reach a width of several miles. 

The 'moraines are composed largely of clayey till with a pebbly clay 
loam soil, but gravel knolls are scattered along them, and in places the 
till is very stony. The till plains have a black clay loam soil of darker 
color and somewhat less stony drift than the moraines. There are small 
outwash aprons of sand and gravel associated with the moraines. 

OVERLAP OF RED DRIFT BY GRAY DRIFT IN GRANTSBURG LOBE 

In the district north of the Minnesota River the Keewatin ice made 
a great protrusion northeastward over an area that had been lately 
vacated by the Patrician ice, and deposited a sheet of the young gray 
drift on the surface of the young red drift. The extent of overlap is in 
the neighborhood of 75 miles. The end of the lobe is found near Grants- 
burg, Wisconsin, opposite the southern end of Pine County, Minnesota, 
but the ice encroached so little on the Wisconsin side of the St. Croix 
River that glacial drainage appears to have been but slightly interrupted 
by the extension beyond the river. 

A portion of the overlap on the southwest side of the Mississippi River 
in Wright, Hennepin, and Carver counties shows a veneering of strong 
red drift moraines by a relatively thin deposit of the gray drift. The 
gray drift deposit, however, becomes thick enough within a few miles 
of its border to conceal completely the red drift deposits. 

On the northeast side of the Mississippi River the area covered by the 
Grantsburg lobe has been extensively blanketed by dune sand which 
covers much of Sherburne, Isanti, and Anoka counties, and extends to 
the St. Croix River in Chisago County. There are, however, morainic 



54 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

ridges and narrow till plains standing in these areas of dune sand, but 
most of them are composed largely of stony drift which the Keewatin 
ice gathered up from the sheet of Patrician drift which it overrode, and 
incorporated with some of its own more calcareous material. The topo- 
graphic features also seem due mainly to the Keewatin ice advance. In 
some cases what had been a gravel plain of red drift has been changed 
into a ridged or morainic area by a disturbing and heaping up of its 
deposits, with a veneering mixed with gray till. 

The dune sands appear to have lodged generally on the clayey areas 
of the Keewatin drift and not on the gravel and sand areas. In some 
cases they are on moraines and in others on till plains. The sand is so 
fine as to have considerable capillary action, and by thus supplying mois- 
ture in dry seasons, has yielded fair returns where cultivated. Bands of 
fine dust-like deposits in the sand increase its fertility. Situated as it 
is near the markets of St. Paul and Minneapolis, vegetable growing or 
market gardening is likely to become a profitable enterprise. It is an 
important potato growing area. 

At the northeast end of the lobe in southern Pine and northern Chi- 
sago counties, and also in eastern Chisago County there are till plains 
associated with narrow morainic ridges, all having a rich pebbly, clay 
loam soil. 

GRAY DRIFT MORAINES OF CENTRAL MINNESOTA 

Along the east side of the Keewatin ice field, as already indicated, 
there was a thin border drift. This is succeeded on the west by a very 
strong system of moraines which comes into the area under discussion 
from the north in Otter Tail County, and runs southeastward across 
Douglas, Pope, northeastern Swift, and central Kandiyohi counties. It 
branches in eastern Kandiyohi County, and the outer or northern mem- 
ber bears north of east from New London past Paynesville to the chain 
of lakes north of Eden Valley, and then turns southeastward and runs 
between Watkins and Kimball into northwestern Wright County, and 
thence northeastward into the Grantsburg lobe already discussed. The 
portion north and east of Watkins is at the extreme border of the young 
gray drift. But farther west it falls short of reaching the red drift 
border, the interval being filled by the relatively thin border portion 
of the young gray drift. 

The southern or inner member of the great morainic system continues 
southeastward from central Kandiyohi County to the northwest corner of 
McLeod County, where it turns abruptly northeastward to form the 
northwest border of the Grantsburg lobe. By that time the lobe was 
considerably shrunken, and had its terminus near the Mississippi River. 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 55 

The moraines of the Grantsburg lobe which correlate with this inner 
part of the great morainic system curve around in Wright County and 
run southward across Carver and western Hennepin counties to the 
Minnesota valley. 

This great morainic system is bordered on the east by extensive out- 
wash plains of gravel and sand in Otter Tail, Douglas, Pope, south- 
western Stearns, and northern Kandiyohi counties. The drainage was 
thence down the Mississippi along Sauk River. Farther east there were 
outwash plains near Kimball which found their drainage eastward to the 
Mississippi along lines south of Sauk River. Farther east near South 
Haven and Annandale the outwash plains slope northward to the Mis- 
sissippi at Clearwater. 

From the inner morainic system there was an outwash northward 
near Litchfield and Darwin into a small lake that occupied the plain 
bordering North Crow River between Kingston and Manannah, and 
which discharged northward past Eden Valley and the chain of lakes 
north of that village to Sauk River valley and thence to the Mississippi. 
There are also smaller lines of glacial drainage coming into this lake from 
the west at Manannah. The ice at that time was covering the lower 
course of Crow River below Kingston, and thus caused the ponding of 
the waters west of that village. The outwash plains and glacial drainage 
lines in Meeker County have a fine sandy to gravelly soil, but the old 
lake bed is covered by a fine lacustrine silt nearly free from pebbles. 

This great morainic system is composed of coarse stony drift along 
much of its eastern border with numerous gravel knolls and ridges in- 
cluded. But as one passes westward or southwestward toward the inner 
border of the morainic system, a clayey till is found to come in gradually, 
while gravel knolls and ridges become more and more infrequent. There 
are occasional small areas of outwash plain in the midst of the morainic 
system in Otter Tail and Douglas counties, but such features are remark- 
ably rare. 

THE GREAT PLAIN OF THE MINNESOTA LOBE 

The axis of movement of the Keewatin ice field was along the Minne- 
sota valley from Swift County, near Appleton, to the great bend of the 
Minnesota at Mankato, and there is found on either side of the river a 
broad plain rising gradually toward the border of the great morainic sys- 
tems above discussed. That on the north side of the river covers much 
of Swift, Chippewa, Kandiyohi, Renville, McLeod, Sibley, and Nicollet 
counties, while that on the south covers the greater part of Lac qui Parle, 
Yellow Medicine, Lyon, Redwood, Cottonwood, Brown, Watonwan, 
Martin, Blue Earth, and Faribault counties. 



56 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

On this plain a few weak moraines were developed, which mark suc- 
cessive positions of the ice border as it was melting back from the vicinity 
of Mankato to the headwater part of the Minnesota River. Along the 
outer border of these moraines are found channels of border drainage 
which eventually enter the Minnesota, usually along the line of modem 
streams. They, however, cross from one modem river valley to another 
because the ice was still covering the lower courses of the more northern 
and western streams. Thus border drainage which follows the course 
of Yellow Medicine River will cross over to that of Redwood River and 
then to Cottonwood, and perhaps to the Watonwan before entering the 
Minnesota. These channels are better defined on the south than on the 
north of the Minnesota River, probably because the melting of the ice 
was more rapid on that side. 

In connection with the border drainage there was more or less pond- 
ing of the waters along the edge of the ice, so the channels are not con- 
tinuous from each one of the modem valleys to a neighboring valley in 
every instance. The effect of this ponding was to cause a deposition of 
silt over the till, but it seldom reaches a depth of more than a few inches. 
The ponding was also so short-lived that beaches or definite shore lines 
seem not to have been developed. 

This great plain is largely prairie, and the soil is a rich black loam on 
its level portions, and a pebbly clay loam on the morainic ridges. These 
morainic ridges often include gravelly knolls which are of much value 
in furnishing material for the roads. The portions of the border drain- 
age channels not now utilized by streams are often marshy and ill-drained, 
but can usually be reclaimed by ditching. The dry portions of the 
border drainage channels usually have a sandy soil. 

Yellow Medicine River is somewhat peculiar in its drainage, in the 
portion immediately above Hanley Falls. The plain there is so flat that 
the river has developed a number of channels which branch out and 
come together again, thus inclosing areas of several square miles in 
some cases. 

The Minnesota valley was broadly and deeply excavated by the outlet 
of Lake Agassiz. In several places it has branching channels which 
inclose strips of the upland, sometimes several miles in length and only 
a mile or two in width, as indicated on the general map (Plate i). 
Below Montevideo, however, it has a single broad channel. All along its 
course there are rock ledges standing up prominently in the bottoms. 

THE GREAT RED RIVER PLAIN 

Only the eastern part of this plain lies in Minnesota, the western being 
in the Dakotas. The Red River valley and its southward continuation 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 57 

in the basin drained by the Mustinka and the Bois des Siovix rivers was the 
axis of movement of the Keewatin ice field. The terminus of the ice 
lobe was at one time in a moraine which runs along Big Stone Lake and 
thence eastward across southern Big Stone County into northwestern 
Swift County, and thence northward along or near the Chippewa River 
to its source in northeastern Grant County. The ice was thus a broad 
lobe at its southern end, markedly out of harmony with the last stages 
of the ice in the Minnesota valley below Big Stone Lake, which had been 
reduced to a very narrow lobe, as indicated by the moraines each side of 
the valley. From this it is inferred that the ice made a decided readvance 
with broader front at the time it reached the position marked by the 
moraine just outlined. Extensive outwash plains of fine sandy gravel 
were developed just outside this moraine in southeastern Stevens, western 
Pope, and northwestern Swift counties, and also in southern Big Stone 
County. 

Between this moraine and the shore of Lake Agassiz there is an 
extensive till plain covering much of Stevens and Big Stone counties and 
part of Grant and Otter Tail counties, on which an occasional slight in- 
dication of later positions of the ice border are traceable in weak ridges 
and low hummocks. The ridges are better defined in Grant and Otter 
Tail counties than farther south. The ice eventually shrank within the 
limits of the Lake Agassiz area in Traverse, Grant, and Wilkin counties. 

THE LAKE AGASSIZ AREA 

The portion of the Lake Agassiz area in the southern half of Minne- 
sota lies mainly in Traverse and Wilkin counties, but it touches north- 
western Stevens, western Grant, and southwestern Otter Tail counties. 
The soil is sandy for a few miles at the southern end of this lake area, 
but elsewhere is a heavier soil. The lake clays are of very slight depth, 
usually but a few inches, and the till is at the surface over most of the 
lake bed embraced in the area under discussion. In the northern part 
of Traverse County, bowlders are exceedingly numerous. 

The beaches or shore lines formed at several levels are usually com- 
posed of fine gravel suitable for use on roads. They also have been used 
as lines for highways and for buildings sites. 

The soil on the flat areas is a rich black loam, and even the sandy 
portions have a black sandy loam. 

OUTWASH SAND AND GRAVEL PLAINS 

There is perhaps no other surface formation in the state that diflFers 
so greatly in the character of the soil and in agricultural value as the 
outwash plains of sand and gravel. In some places these plains have a 



58 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

rich cover of black loam, several inches to several feet in depth, which 
renders them about as fertile as any land in the state ; while at the other 
extreme they may have a soil or surface of loose sand or gravel subject 
to drouth and relatively unfertile. Between these extremes the grades 
of soil range from poor to fair or good. In the present survey the sepa- 
ration and mapping of the extent of each grade of soil in the outwash 
plains has not been attempted. In the county discussions, however, state- 
ments have been inserted which serve to indicate to some extent the 
local variations in the character of the soil on these plains. But a much 
more detailed soil survey must be made to bring out properly the agricul- 
tural values of each section. 

ALLUVIAL BOTTOMS 

There are broad alluvial bottoms along the Minnesota River through- 
out its course from Big Stone Lake to the Mississippi, and along the 
Mississippi below St. Paul. Those on the Mississippi are subject to over- 
flow at high river stages, and can only be cultivated with profit in the 
driest years. The lower portion of the Minnesota valley is in process of 
silting up, for the valley was cut by the outlet of Lake Agassiz to a level 
20 to 30 feet below the present level of the stream. The lakes on the 
border of Scott and Hennepin counties are unfilled parts of this deep 
channel. The Minnesota valley has stretches of very slight fall im- 
mediately above the rock rapids which occasionally appear along its 
course. In such places the river may be expanded into a lake, as is the 
case at Lac qui Parle and in Marsh Lake. 

The tributaries of the Mississippi River in southeastern Minnesota 
usually have broad alluvial flats extending some distance up from their 
mouths, but these are seldom subject to overflow and are in large part 
under cultivation. 

The portion of the Mississippi above Minneapolis has a broad valley 
formed as a line of glacial drainage, whose bed is a light sandy soil. The 
stream in postglacial time has cut a small trench in this broad valley. St. 
Croix River has broad bottom lands in southern Pine and northern 
Chisago counties, but below high banks border the stream somewhat 
closely except at Lakeland where there are broad terraces with sandy 
soil. The lower course of the river, however, below Stillwater is ex- 
panded into a lake, known as Lake St. Croix. 

FARMING DEVELOPMENT IN MINNESOTA 

The census of 1850 gives Minnesota only 5,035 acres, or about 8 
square miles of improved land. This was in 157 farms, or an average 
of 32 acres per farm. In i860 there were 556,250 acres, or about 870 




A. BED OF LAKE AGASSIZ NEAR WHEATON 




B. GKAIN FIELD IN BED OF LAKE AGASSIZ NEAR WHEATON 




C. CRAY DRIFT TILL PLAIN IN CHISAGO COUNTY 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 59 

square miles of improved land. There were 18,181 farms with an aver- 
age of about 31 acres of improved land. There were only 2,924 farms, 
or 16 per cent, with more than 50 acres of improved land. It thus ap- 
pears that farming was still in its beginnings as late as i860. 

The farms down to that time were very largely along the river bot- 
toms and in the oak openings in the southeast part of the state. Such 
forests are easily cleared, and the stumps soon decay; so the pioneers 
expended only a moderate amount of time and labor in changing these 
oak openings into agricultural land. This land, too, was naturally well 
drained, much of it being covered with loess which is a readily pervious 
silt which would absorb the rainfall rapidly. It also holds moisture and 
yields it to the crops through capillary action in the dry seasons. The 
settlements were confined to a narrow belt along the rivers within about 
a day's haul by team, and the navigable waters of the Mississippi, the St. 
Croix, and the Minnesota furnished avenues of shipment to the markets. 
The yield of wheat on the fertile loess soil was high, and this soon became 
the staple crop. In an early day flour mills were erected along many of 
the tributaries of the Mississippi, which utilized the water power afforded 
by these streams. So long as wheat raising was highly profitable, there 
was very little stock raising. The long cold winters probably also tended 
to check the stock raising, but by 1870 the wheat yield in the southeastern 
counties had begun to fall off, and this led to more diversified farming. 
The seasons in the early i86o's were very favorable for wheat raising, 
and the yield in the years from i860 to 1865 averaged about 22 bushels 
per acre, or 43^ bushels above the average for the state in 1910. 

Down to 1870 the settlement was almost entirely in the forested areas 
of the eastern part of the state. The settlements were very slowly ex- 
tended into the prairies, not only on account of their remoteness from 
navigable waters, but also because of lack of fuel and the bleakness of 
the region and lack of windbreaks. There seems also to have been a 
feeling of uncertainty as to the productiveness of the prairie land, it 
being inferred that the lack of timber was due to some deficiency in 
the soil. 

Between i860 and 1870, notwithstanding the repressing influence of 
the Civil War, there was a great extension of agriculture over the greater 
part of the southern half of the state. A few prairie counties in the 
southwest part, and the densely wooded counties east of the Mississippi 
River, however, received very few settlers prior to 1870. Immediately 
after the Civil War railroad extension became rapid, and by the early 
1870's railroads had been extended to the western and southwestern 
parts of the state and on into the Dakotas. The line from St. Paul to 
Duluth also connected the agricultural district with this Great Lakes 



6o SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

port, and other lines from the western part of the state were soon con- 
nected with Duluth. 

Although settlement started in the forested portion of Minnesota, 
that part has now a smaller percentage of improved land than the prairie 
portion of the state. The prairie counties usually have from 70 to 85 per 
cent classed as improved land, while the older settled forested counties, 
such as Wright, Hennepin, and Carver have but little more than half their 
area classed in the census of 1910 as improved land. There has been, 
however, a steady increase in the percentage of improved land in the 
forested counties, thus showing there is not an abandonment of farming 
but merely a slow development due in large part to the difficulty of 
clearing the land. 

It is in the forested areas that swamp lands are most extensive, and 
they as well as the forests greatly check the development of agriculture. 
The most extensive swamps and marshes in the southern half of Minne- 
sota are found in the district east of the Mississippi River, in Pine, Kana- 
bec, Mille Lacs, Isanti, and Anoka counties. In the forested district west 
of the Mississippi there are nvmierous lakes, some of which have marshy 
borders. There are also basins deeply filled with peat inclosed among 
the morainic hills and ridges. Systematic ditching after careful surveys 
should greatly decrease the amount of swamp land. In some of the 
prairie counties, lakes which are represented on the land survey plats, 
and which still appear on the county atlases, have in many places been 
completely drained and their beds been converted into agricultural land. 

The table, on page 61, compiled from census reports gives the growth 
of agriculture in each county in the southern half of the state decade by 
decade from 1870 to 1910. 

RANK OF DIFFERENT CROPS IN MINNESOTA 

As shown by the census of 191 o, the acreage of cereals in Minnesota 
has the following order from highest to lowest : Wheat, oats, corn, bar- 
ley, rye. The amount of tame grass cut is but little more than that of 
wild grass, there being 2,885,987 tons of tame grass, and 2,714,121 tons 
of wild grass cut in 1909. The acreage of wild grass was but slightly 
higher than that of the tame grass, there being 1,815,250 acres of tame 
grass, and 1,988,664 of wild grass. 

Wheat leads in 32 of the 63 counties here reported on in the southern 
part of the state, while oats leads in 20 of them. Corn leads in 5 counties, 
Anoka, Freeborn, Hennepin, Houston, and Sherburne counties, all in 
the southeast part of the state. Barley leads in Dodge, Goodhue, Lincoln, 
Olmsted, Wabasha, and Winona counties, all but one in the southeast 
part of the state. Wheat leads in the great till plains of the Wisconsin 



AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 6i 



Per Cent of Improved Land of Counties in Southern Half of Minnesota by Decades, 1870 to 1910 



County 



Aitkin 

Anoka 

Benton 

Big Stone 

Blue Earth 

Brown 

Carver 

Chippewa 

Chisago 

Cottonwood 

Crow Wingt. ... 

Dakota 

Dodge 

Douglas 

Faribault 

Fillmore 

Freeborn 

Goodhue 

Grant 

Hennepin 

Houston 

Isanti 

Jackson 

Kanabec 

Kandiyohi 

Lac qui Parle. . . . 

Le Sueur 

Lincoln 

Lyon 

McLeod 

Martin 

Meeker 

Mille Lacs 

Morrison 

Mower 

Murray 

Nicollet 

Nobles 

Olmsted 

Otter Tail} 

Pine 

Pipestone 

Pope 

Ramsey 

Redwood 

Renville 

Rice 

Rock 

Scott 

Sherburne 

Sibley 

Stearns 

Steele 

Stevens 

Swift 

Todd 

Traverse 

Wabasha 

Waseca 

Washington 

Watonwan 

Wilkin 

Winona 

Wright 

Yellow Medicine. , 



1870 



2.87 
0.98 

21.00 
8.63 

14-15 
1. 12 
2-93 
0.19 

4239 
26.47 

3-37 
14.78 
33-33 
14.70 
44.21 

0.24 
18.00 
1 8.60 

2.70 

1.20 

1. 21 



6.76 
4-23 
5-42 
0.48 
0.48 
14^40 

18.00 



47.40 
0.28 



2.85 
9.92 

t 

30.00 

20.00 
2-7.'; 
8.35 
6.33 

17.27 
0.27 
1. 12 
0.61 

39-45 
17-8S 
19.08 
6.02 
0.19 
33-48 
5-34 
t 



1880 I 1890 



12.80 

7.10 

7.00 
55-25 
35-78 
38.67 
16.90 
1 1.40 
17.00 

0.40 
60.26 
68.87 
17-30 
48.88 
65.00 
54-45 
70-95 

9.20 
3946 
40.00 

9.20 
13-50 

0.20 
30.79 
1 1.20 
74-47 

7.00 
15.40 
43-9C 
12. oc 
32.25 

1. 8c 

4.9c 
60.55 

6.70 
63.00 
14.70 
75.17 

lO.IC 
0.20 

7-30 
18.00 
24.01 
1 1. 60 
15.20 
53-06 
20.98 
42.09 
13-70 
33-11 
21.41 
69.96 
18.00 
17.00 

7.80 

4-50 
61.01 
64-36 
4103 
21.90 

4.20 
53-88 
22.47 
14.40 



0.20 
14.10 
19.00 
32.66 
77.96 
61.43 
41-23 

34-22 

15-90 

33-64 

3-70 

61.80 

68.12 

28.59 

68.74 

'^3-74 

58.11 

73-95 

32.73 

39-24 

12.76 

13.60 

27.08 

1. 00 

41.46 

41.58 

45-54 

29-85 

31-19 

62.74 

32.27 

38.73 

2.90 

9-40 

61.86 

25-36 

71.24 

34-45 

73-02 

23-84 

0.50 

29.23 

35-82 

22.36 

26.30 

36.71 

69.46 

45-29 

53-71 

21.53 

61.43 

28.69 

77-23 

25.09 

27.18 

I 1.40 

27-44 

62.80 

72.46 

46.71 

46.85 

17.80 

53-96 

28.77 

37-84 



1900 

1-77 
29.64 
31.10 
7756 
74.66 
80.03 
50.03 
81.88 

3'-20 

^3.40 

5.30 

71.08 

78.00 

46.31 
85.62 

70.09 

72.84 
76.30 

62.04 

54.63 
46.55 
30.31 

78.8s 

4.00 

66.67 

77-44 
49.93 
69.40 
73.76 
73.70 
83-32 
6:;. 00 
8.40 
20.28 
86.76 
75-12 
73.80 
64.54 
76.81 
38.72 
3.40 
69-38 
64.60 
37-97 
74.13 
80.00 
71.90 
84.92 
52.64 
30.90 
74.42 
48.23 
82.25 
69.02 
72.50 
24.65 
73.33 
65.86 
81.61 
57.40 
78.68 
56.14 
56.58 
48.71 
73.64 



1910 



2 97 

34.50 
42.00 

77-22 

73.60 

78.56 
53-40 

79-28 
38-33 
82.70 
7.67 
67-77 
80.45 
52.95 
83-46 
70.42 
69.79 
73.30 
72.7A 
52-43 
47-72 
38.72 
78.96 
10.95 
72.14 
79-77 
54-70 
72.77 
75.93 
75.64 
81.93 
68.10 
12.97 
25.14 
86.00 
78.94 
66.88 
83.98 
74.12 
45.46 
7.17 
83.50 
64.58 
40.00 
75.76 
82.00 
72.38 
86.00 
56.94 
.38.65 
76.14 
51.86 
81.68 
73.25 
76.36 
32.85 
83.73 
66.37 
74.88 
60.14 
81.27 
66.76 
58.20 
5.^.7.'. 
78.93 



Dominant Soil and Vegetation 



Several soils. Mixed forest. 

Sand, mixed gray drift. Scrub oak, wire grass. 

Clayey red drift. Hardwood. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie and hardwood. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Mixed and clayey gray drift. Oak. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey gray drift, sand. Hardwood. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Several soils. Mixed forest. 

Gravelly red drift. Oak and prairie. 

Clayey old gray drift. Prairie. 

Mixed gray drift. Hardwood and prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Loess, clayey old gray drift. Oak and prairie. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie, oak groves. 

Loess, clayey old gray drift. Oak and prairie. 

Clayey gray drift, part lake sediment. Prairie. 

Mixed gray <lrift. Hardwood. 

Loess, residual, alluvial. Oak. 

Sand, mixed gray drift. Oak. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey to mixed red drift. Mixed forest. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie and groves. 

("layey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Hardwood. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Hardwood. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Hardwood. 

Clayey to mi.xed red drift. Mixed forest. 

Clayey to mixed red drift. Mixed forest. 

Clayey old gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie and groves. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Loess, clayey old gray drift. Oak and prairie. 

Mixed gray drift. Prairie, mixed forest. 

Several soils. Mixed forest. 

Clayey gray drift, partly old. Prairie. 

Mixed gray drift. Prairie and groves. 

Mixed red drift. Oak. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Mixed gray drift. Hardwood, prairie. 

Loess, clayey old gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Hardwood. 

Mixed gray drift, sand. Scrub-oak. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie and hardwood. 

Several soils. Hardwood, prairie. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie. 

Clayey to mixed red and gray drifts. Mixed forest. 

Lake silt and sand, clayey gray drift. Prairie. 

Loess, alluvial. Oak, prairie. 

Clayey gray drift. Prairie, hardwood. 

Clayey to mixed red drift. Oak. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie. 

T>ake sf^riimen*. cl^vev gray drift. Prairie. 

Loess, alluvial. Prairie, oak. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Hardwood. 

Clayey to mixed gray drift. Prairie. 



* Less than one square mile improved in 1870. 

■S- Several counties combined with Redwood County, with 1,074 acres improved land in whole area. 

% Part of county in northern half also included. 



62 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

drift bordering the Minnesota valley, and in most of the older settled 
counties in central Minnesota. Oats leads in the poorly settled counties 
of eastern Minnesota, and in 7 counties of southwestern Minnesota. In 
the tables under each county the order of importance of each cereal is 
given, from highest to lowest. 

RELATION OF CROP VALUES TO FARM INVESTMENTS IN SOUTHERN MINNESOTA 

The gross income from crops, as given by the census of 1910, and 
as quoted in the tables in connection with each of the counties here dis- 
cussed, shows a range in the different counties from about 9 per cent to 
17 per cent of the total value of the farm property in the respective 
counties. The following table gives the percentage for each county : 

Annual Gross Income of Crops in Per Cent of Farm Values 

Per cent 

Big Stone, Pope, Stevens, Swift 17 

Chippewa, Grant, Renville, Traverse 16-16.7 

Douglas, Isanti, Kandiyohi, Lac qui Parle, Meeker, Stearns, Wilkin i5-iS.8 

Benton, Morrison, Nicollet, Sherburne, Sibley, Wabasha, Yellow Medicine i4-i4-7 

Brown, Dakota, Steele, Washington i3-i3-9 

Blue Earth, Chisago, Goodhue, Le Sueur, McLeod, Mille Lacs, Rice, Scott, Todd, 

Waseca, Winona, Wright 12-13.9 

Anoka, Carver, Cottonwood, Freeborn, Hennepin, Houston, Lincoln, Lyon, Olmsted, Pine, 

Ramsey, Watonwan i i-i 1.9 

Dodge, Faribault, Fillmore, Jackson, Martin, Mower, Pipestone 10-10.5 

Kanabec, Murray, Nobles, Rock 9- 9-7 

In 8 counties in the southwest part of the state the gross income is 
16 to 17 per cent, but in 3 others, also in the southwest part, it is less 
than 10 per cent. This difference is not a difference in productivity of 
soil, but seems due largely to the higher estimate of value of land in these 
3 counties. It serves to show that prices in these counties have reached, 
if they have not already gone beyond, profitable use by the present occu- 
pants, for the gross income is ordinarily more than double the net income, 
or real return for farm investments. There are 7 more counties in the 
southern part in which the gross income is only 10 to 10.5 per cent of the 
valuation. A large number of counties scattered over the southern half 
of the state have a gross income between 11 and 16 per cent. 




A. CULTIVATED KED DRIFT TILL PLAIN NEAR FOLEY 




B. RED DRIFT TILL PLAIN WITH FOREST NEAR FOLEY 




C. BOULDERS ON RED DRIFT TILL PLAIN NEAR FOLEY 



CHAPTER IV 

DESCRIPTIONS OF COUNTIES 

In the description of counties which follows, the county taken first 
is in the northeast corner of the area, and after this counties to the west 
and south to the southern border of the state are discussed. A few data 
from the census of 1910 are presented in addition to the results of the 
land classification on a geologic basis. 

PINE COUNTY 

Pine County is located in the northeast corner of the area embraced 
in this report, its eastern boundary being the state line of Minnesota and 
Wisconsin. Its land area is 1,413 square miles, and the water area of 
its meandered lakes and streams is 24.76 square miles. It embraces a 
large amount of poorly drained land classed as swamp on the Land 
Office plats, there being 387 square miles, or about 27 per cent of the 
county as computed from these plats. The greater part of this may be 
readily drained at moderate expense. A few places were noted in the 
northeast part, however, where the swamps are held in by barriers of 
rock, and others where prominent drift ridges and knolls inclose them. 
But in most cases the swamps are due in part to fallen timber and beaver 
dams which may be easily removed. As a result of the great Hinckley 
fire which some years ago swept a large tract in the southwest part of 
the county, the area of some of the swamps was markedly reduced, and 
peat beds were burned out leaving the soil exposed. In the settlements 
near Bruno and also near Beroun, the swamp areas have been greatly 
reduced and rendered tillable. In some cases the swamp lands were pas- 
tured for a few years after the water was drained away, and before they 
were cultivated. 

This county is somewhat unique in that it was encroached upon by 
each of the three ice fields in the Wisconsin stage of glaciation. The 
Superior ice, however, covered only a narrow strip with red drift along 
the north border of the county, and the Keewatin ice a few townships of 
gray drift at the southern end. In the remainder of the county the 
Patrician red drift is at the surface, and it also underlies the other drifts. 
There was glacial drainage from the Superior lobe down the Kettle 
River, from the Patrician ice down the St. Croix River, and from the 
Keewatin ice along Snake River. The St. Croix also served as an outlet 
for the glacial Lake Duluth, which produced a large valley with sandy 
and in part swampy bottoms. The Keewatin or young gray drift at the 



64 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

southern end of the county is largely of clayey texture and high fer- 
tility. The red drift is more stony, though much of it has a clayey ad- 
mixture both in moraines and till plains. It will be likely to be excellent 
grass land, and the county as a whole may become a profitable region 
for dairying and stock raising. 

Rock hills 10 to 20 feet high, covering a few acres each, are found 
in the swamps and among the morainic knolls in the northeastern part 
of the county, and there are rock exposures along the streams in the 
southern part. The combined area, however, appears to be but little 
more than i per cent of the county. 

In the northern part of the county farming is extended but little east 
of the Great Northern Railroad, but in the southern part it extends over 
the entire width of the county. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Pine Coimty 

Square miles Per cent 

Sandy red drift moraine with stony loam soil 60 4.2 

Clayey red drift moraine. Soil clayey to stony loam 280 19.7 

Clayey gray drift moraine, pebbly clay loam soil 20 1.4 

Red drift till plain, chiefly stony loam soil 290 20.5 

Gray drift till plain, pebbly clay loam soil 58 4.1 

Red drift till plain, sandy loam soil 100 7.1 

Red drift outwash, sandy to gravelly loam '37) 'S-S 

Glacial drainage and valley alluvium, sandy 87 1 

Rocky areas 15 i.i 

Swamp 366 25.9 



1,413 99-8 

Farm and Crop Data for Pine County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 10,627 or 7.5 per square mile. 

Per cent of land in farms 25.5 

Per cent of farm land improved 28. i 

Average acres per farm 1 1 1.7 

Average improved acres per farm 31.3 

Value of all farm property $7,453,287 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 227.8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $846,136 

Cereals (oats, corn, wheat, barley, rye) $189,951 

Other grains and seeds $.S,047 

Hay and forage* $362,443 

Vegetables $158,461 

Fruits and nuts $4,042 

All other crops $126,192 

•Tame grass, 32,050 tons; wild grass, 13,356 tons. 

SOUTHERN AITKIN COUNTY 

The part of Aitkin County south of the median line of the state was 
briefly discussed with the main part of the county lying north of this line, 
in Bulletin 13. The per cent of swamp land in this part is somewhat 
less than for the entire county, estimated by Ralph as 42 per cent. The 
swamps are largely underlain by clayey till similar to that of the border- 



KANABEC COUNTY 65 

ing dry land, and they can be greatly reduced by systematic ditching. 
Two sandy areas occur in this part of the county, one being immediately 
north of Mille Lacs Lake, and the other at the terminus of the Superior 
lobe in T. 45, R. 24, and T. 45, R. 23W., with an extension down Snake 
River into T. 44, R. 23W. 

This part of the county is traversed by a new branch of the Soo 
Railroad, on which the villages of Arthyde, Solana, McGrath, and Red 
Top have sprung up, while farms are being rapidly developed. For sta- 
tistics from the census of 1910 concerning the products of this county, 
reference may be made to Bulletin 13. 

KANABEC COUNTY 

Kanabec County is located in eastern Minnesota with Mora as the 
county seat. The principal settlement and farming development is along 
or near the lines of the Great Northern Railroad, one of which crosses 
its southern part and another touches its southwest corner. The surface 
of the county slopes from north to south, being 1,200 to 1,300 feet in 
the northern part and about 950 feet in the southern. The prominent 
moraine of red Patrician drift which crosses the northern part of Mille 
Lacs County also passes through the northern edge of this county, but 
elsewhere morainic features are weak and much of the surface is a till 
plain. There are a few outcrops of rock with slight relief in the northern 
part of the county, but these are chiefly along or near Snake River. 

The Grantsburg lobe of the Keewatin ice field barely touched the 
southern edge of the county for a few miles west of Braham. A small 
glacial lake covered much of the southeast township. This lake, how- 
ever, was apparently held up by the Patrician ice barrier on the north. 
This lake area was later encroached upon from the south by the Keewatin 
ice. It has a clay soil. 

Another small glacial lake extended into the southwest corner of the 
county from southern Mille Lacs County. This seems to have been held 
in by the Keewatin ice south of it which covered the lower course of 
Rum River, the present outlet for this region. 

Interglacial valleys cut in the old gray drift which underlie this county 
have been only partly filled by the later or Wisconsin drift. Lakes and 
swamps occur along the lines of these partially filled valleys, and gravelly 
knolls also occur in them. 



66 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Kanabec County 

Square miles Per cent 

Sandy moraine, sandy to stony loam 25 4.7 

Clayey moraine, clayey to stony loam 55 10.3 

Clayey to mixed till plain, clayey to stony loam 346 64.8 

Gravelly land, knolly and plain 20 3.7 

Lake clay 20 3.7 

Rock outcrops 3 0.5 

Swamp 63 12.3 

534 lOO.O 

Farm and Crop Data for Kanabec County, from Census of 1910 

Rural population 5,110 or 9.5 per square mile. 

Per cent of land in farms 34.1 

Per cent of farm land improved 32.1 

Average acres per farm 1 14.4 

Average improved acres per farm 36.7 

Value of all farm property $4,698,416 

Per cent increase, 1900 to 1910 209.8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $447,255 

Cereals (oats, com, wheat, barley, rye) $96,036 

Other grains and seeds $ i ,89 1 

Hay and forage* $197,218 

Vegetables $112,007 

Fruits and nuts $ii754 

All other crops $38,349 



•Tame grass, 19,445 tons; wild grass, 8,644 tons 



MILLE LACS COUNTY 

Mille Lacs County embraces the southern end of Mille Lacs Lake 
and extends southward about 40 miles beyond the lake in a narrow strip 
12 to 18 miles wide. The land area is 583 square miles and the water 
area 117 square miles. The percentage of swamp land is about the same 
as in Kanabec County, or not far from one eighth of the county. The 
northern part of the county is crossed by a prominent moraine of red 
Patrician drift, but the remainder is largely till plain of red Patrician 
drift. A moraine of the Keewatin gray drift is found in the south end 
of the county. In this southern end there was a small glacial lake imme- 
diately north of the Keewatin ice border whose bed is now drained south- 
ward by Rum River. 

There are a few places where granite ledges are exposed along and 
near Rum River and its tributaries. They have slight relief above the 
land around them, and a combined area of not over 2 square miles. 

As in Kanabec County the interglacial valleys cut in the old gray 
drift are only partly filled by the later or Wisconsin drift, and are now 
occupied to some extent by swamps and lakes. The moraine of red 
Patrician drift also incloses many lakes and swamps. 

The principal settlements and most of the farming development has 
been along and near the Great Northern Railway lines in the southern 



SOUTHERN CROW WING COUNTY 67 

part of the county, and along the border of Mille Lacs Lake, near the 
Soo Railway. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Mille Lacs County 

Square miles Per cent 

Clayey to mixed red drift moraine, stony loam 80 13-72 

Clayey gray drift moraine, pebbly clay loam 5 0.86 

Clayey to mixed red drift till plain, chiefly stony loam 356 61.07 

Clayey gray drift till plain, pebbly clay loam S c.86 

Gravelly and sandy outwash and glacial drainage, sandy to gravelly loam.. 35 6.00 

Glacial lake clay 20 3.43 

Rock outcrops 2 0.34 

Swamp lands 80 1 3-72 

583 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Mille Lacs County from Census of igio 

Rural population 2,411 or 4 per square mile. 

Per cent of land in farms 33.1 

Per cent of farm land improved 39.2 

Average acres per farm 96.8 

Average improved acres per farm 37.9 

Value of all farm property $5,599,1 1 1 

Percentage of increase, 1900 to 1910 169 

Value of all crops in 1909 $680,497 

Cereals (oats, corn, wheat, barley, rye) $178,259 

Other grains and seeds $4>3oo 

Hay and forage* $231,558 

Vegetables, chiefly potatoes $184,748 

Fruits and nuts $3,125 

All other crops $58,507 

• Tame grass, 28,784 tons; wild grass, 12,904 tons. 

SOUTHERN CROW WING COUNTY 

Crow Wing County, of which Brainerd is the county seat, is near the 
center of the state, and is so situated that part of its area lies in the 
northeast quarter, part in the northwest quarter, and about 40 per cent 
in the southern half of the state. Descriptions of the northern part have 
been given in Bulletins 12 and 13. 

Crow Wing County is drained entirely by the Mississippi River which 
traverses it nearly centrally from northeast to southwest. A large part 
of the county stands between 1,200 and 1,300 feet above sea level, there 
being only a few square miles above 1,300 feet and only narrow strips 
along the valleys below 1,200 feet. The prominent Mille Lacs moraine 
traverses the eastern part of the county. West of it, occupying several 
townships in the southern part of the county, is a till plain with gently 
undulating surface and rich clayey to sandy loam soil. East of the river 
above Brainerd there is a diffuse morainic belt. Along and west of the 
Mississippi River there are sandy and gravelly plains which are very 
sparsely settled. Fine sand from these plains has drifted to some extent 
over the till plains immediately south of Brainerd, forming a coating 



68 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

from a few inches to several feet thick for a distance of one to three 
miles east of the valley. 

The moraines of the southern part of the county are largely of 
gravelly and stony drift, while the out wash aprons associated with them 
are also of light sandy soil. 

Of about 400 square miles in this southern part of Crow Wing 
County, there are 130 square miles of clayey till lying southeast of Brai- 
nerd which includes most of the farm land of this part of the county. 

SOUTHERN CASS COUNTY 

About 140 square miles of the southern end of Cass County falls 
south of the median line of the state. The remainder of the county is 
discussed in Bulletin 12. Of this southern part about 40 square miles 
are till plain with clayey to stony loam soil. About 25 square miles are 
rugged moraine with gravelly and loose textured drift. The remaining 
75 square miles are occupied by gravelly and sandy outwash plains on 
the borders of Crow Wing River. The principal settlement is on the 
till upland, but a few small farms are opened on the plains in the Crow 
Wing valley along the line of the Northern Pacific Railroad in the 
vicinity of Sylvan and Pillager stations. 

MORRISON COUNTY 

Morrison County is located in the central part of Minnesota with 
Little Falls as the county seat. The Mississippi River crosses the county 
from north to south a little west of the center and Crow Wing River 
forms part of its north border. There is a broad belt of sandy land 
along the Mississippi, formed as a glacial drainage from districts farther 
north. There is another plain of sandy gravel with a somewhat more 
loamy soil which lies a few miles east of the Mississippi River in the 
southern part of the county. There is also a sandy plain along Crow 
Wing River. The greater part of the county is a till plain which is 
encircled on the west by a prominent red drift moraine which occupies the 
northwestern part of this county and the eastern part of Todd County. 
This moraine is very complex and has small outwash aprons, as well as 
lakes and swamps enclosed among its ridges and knolls. Owing to the 
roughness of the surface and the stony character of the drift, this mo- 
raine has remained largely undeveloped, while the neighboring till plains 
have become more fully settled. The till plains of the eastern part of the 
county, however, are only partly settled, but this is due largely to the 
lack of railroad facilities prior to the recent construction of a branch of 
the Soo Line Railroad across the southeast part of the county. 



MORRISON COUNTY 69 

The till plains of this county, like those of Mille Lacs and Kanabec 
counties, have so thin a coating of the Wisconsin red drift that the inter- 
glacial valleys cut in the old gray drift are only partly filled, and ex- 
posures of the old gray drift beneath the red drift are not rare along the 
streams and bluffs. 

The percentage of swamp land in this county is very much smaller 
than in counties to the north and east, there being, as estimated by Ralph, 
only 20,000 acres or 31 square miles, which is but 2.7 per cent of the 
county. 

Rock outcrops are not extensive though exposures are not infrequent. 
There is probably an area of less than 10 square miles in which the rock 
is close to the surface. 

Several sharp gravel ridges, or eskers, are found on the till plain or 
leading into the edge of the moraines. One such ridge leads past Darling 
Station along or near the Northern Pacific Railroad, northwest of Little 
Falls, for a distance of about 7 miles. It has been extensively drawn 
upon for railroad ballast. Another gravel ridge southeast of Fort Rip- 
ley, on the east side of the Mississippi, is 5 or 6 miles long, and a shorter 
one is found two miles farther south near Topeka. There is also a short 
gravel ridge south of Motley in the northwest part of the county. All 
such ridges are of much value in furnishing road material, especially 
when located in till plains. 

Fine sand blown from the outwash and river gravels along the Missis- 
sippi extends the sandy soil areas eastward even onto the upland. Such 
a dune-sand tract lies southeast of Fort Ripley, a larger one east of 
Royalton, and a small area at Little Falls. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Morrison County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine with sandy to gravelly loam soil 175 iS-3i 

Moraine with pebbly clay loam soil 70 6.12 

Eskers, or gravelly ridges, stony loam soil 2 o.:8 

Outwash gravel plains and sandy river bottoms 180 15-75 

Till plain with pebbly clay loam soil 500 43-75 

Till plain with mixed soil 1 70 14-87 

Swamps 36 3.15 

Area with rock near surface 10 0.87 

1,143 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Morrison County frotn Census of igio 

Rural population 15,433 or 13 per square mile. 

Percentage of land area in farms 51.2 

Per cent of farm land improved 49. i 

Average acres per farm 142-9 

Average improved acres per farm 70.2 

Value of all farm property $13,696,359 

Per cent of increase, 1900 to 1910 121. 6 

Total value of crops in 1909 $1,901,837 

Cereals (wheat, oats, corn, barley, rye) $1,250,520 



70 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Farm and Crop Data for Morrison County (Continued) 

Other grains and seeds $5ii7S4 

Hay and forage* $335,221 

Vegetables $149,684 

Fruits and nuts $4,937 

All other crops $109,757 

* Tame grass, 31,746 tons; wild grass, 45,667. Each yielded about 1.5 tons per acre. 

TODD COUNTY 

Todd County is located in the west central part of Minnesota with 
Long Prairie as the county seat. The drainage of about two thirds of 
the county is northward to Crow Wing River, chiefly through Long 
Prairie River. The southern end of the county is drained southward to 
Sauk River, and part of the eastern edge is drained eastward to the 
Mississippi chiefly by Swan River. Hardwood forest occupied the south 
part, and mixed hardwood and conifers the north part. There were 
small prairies on gravel plains near Long Prairie and Round Prairie. 

The most prominent topographic feature is a strong and sharply 
ridged red drift morainic system in the east part of the county. It covers 
a width of 3 to 6 miles, and contains ridges 50 to 75 feet or more in 
height as well as numerous basins and small lakes. This morainic system 
is very sparsely settled in comparison with the remainder of the county. 

The Keewatin ice field apparently had its eastern limit along or near 
the west base of this prominent morainic system, but its drift is thin in 
this county and generally plain. It includes a sharp morainic ridge run- 
ning from Long Prairie southwestward to Osakis Lake, which is scarcely 
one fourth mile in average width, but rises 50 to 75 feet or more above 
the bordering plains. 

The till plains of this county have a relatively thin veneer of young 
or Wisconsin drift over a much eroded surface of old gray drift. The 
present drainage lines, therefore, usually follow broad swales marking 
the courses of interglacial streams. The sandy outwash plains and lines 
of glacial drainage also occupy or follow the courses of interglacial 
drainage to some extent. 

A red drift till plain lies between two red drift moraines in the south- 
east part of the county in the vicinity of Gray Eagle. A till plain on the 
east of the main moraine extends slightly into Todd County, but lies 
mainly in Morrison County. These till plains are largely under cultiva- 
tion. The soil is usually a clayey to stony loam. 

Attention is directed in the introductory chapter to the peculiar mix- 
ture of red drift rocks and gray drift in a belt immediately west of the 
prominent moraine. This is a loose textured, rather stony till, yet it 
has a sufficient amount of clay to be very productive. 

The amount of swamp land or land too wet to cultivate is estimated 
by Ralph to be 25,000 acres, or about 40 square miles, which is slightly 



SOUTHERN OTTER TAIL COUNTY 71 

more than 4 per cent of the area of the county. Much of this is in sandy 
plains in the northeast corner and in the western edge of the county. 
But some of the swales in the till area where the interglacial valleys are 
imperfectly filled by the Wisconsin drift have strips of wet land. There 
are also small swamps inclosed among the morainic knolls and ridges. 

Per Cent of Classes of Land in Todd County 

Square miles Per cent 

Red drift moraines with sandy to gravelly loam soil 184 19-23 

Gray drift moraine with sandy to gravelly loam soil 6 .63 

Gray drift moraine with pebbly clay loam soil 60 6.27 

Outwash gravel plains and sandy bottoms 125 i3-0S 

Red drift till plains, clayey to sandy and pebbly soil S8 6.05 

Gray drift till plains, mainly pebbly clay loam soil 484 50-57 

Swamps and wet lands 4° 4-20 

957 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Todd County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 16,588 or 17.3 per square mile 

Percentage of land area in farms 69.3 

Per cent of farm land improved 47-4 

Average acres per farm i4i-7 

Average improved acres per farm 67.2 

Value of all farm property $15,854,493 

Per cent increase, 1 900 to 1 9 1 88.2 

Total value of crops in 1909 $i.97i.992 

Cereals produced (oats, wheat, corn, barley, rye) $1,223,557 

Other grains and seeds $40,506 

Hay and forage* $395.98s 

Vegetables $181,053 

Fruits and nuts $9,484 

All other crops $121,407 

• There were 41,864 tons of cultivated and 48,397 tons of wild grasses cut. The cultivated 
grasses yielded about 1.7 tons per acre and the wild grasses 1.4 tons. 

SOUTHERN OTTER TAIL COUNTY 

Otter Tail County is located in the western part of Minnesota with 
Fergus Falls as the county seat. It has a land area of over 2,000 square 
miles not including 200 square miles of lake area. The northern part of 
the county embracing 35 townships, or an area of about 1,260 square 
miles, was described in Bulletin 12. There remain 27 townships, or 
about 972 square miles in the southern part to be here discussed. 

The entire area is settled about as fully as is consistent with profitable 
agriculture under present methods. There is a large amount of rough 
moraine with included bogs and lakes that is now in woodland pasture. 
In the prairie portion, which embraces a few townships in the southwest 
part of the county, nearly all of the land that is dry enough has been 
brought under cultivation. 

The greater part of the southern half of Otter Tail County is drained 
westward through Otter Tail River and its branches to the Red River 
valley. The eastern part is drained northeastward into Crow Wing 



72 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

River and thence into the Mississippi, Lakes are a conspicuous feature 
in nearly every township, but are very small in the western range of 
townships. 

The most prominent topographic feature is the intricate system of 
moraines which was formed on the east side of the Keewatin ice field, 
as noted in the general discussion of the features of that ice field. There 
are only narrow strips of till plain in the county. The total area of till 
plain in the three southern tiers of townships is estimated to be i6o 
square miles, or 16.5 per cent of the area. The greater parts of the 
moraines of this county have a sandy to gravelly loam soil, but those in 
the western part in the prairie portion of the county have a clay loam soil. 

About 50 square miles along the western edge of the county were 
covered by the waters of the glacial Lake Agassiz. The surface here is 
very flat and the soil is largely a silty loam or fine sand. The shore lines 
of the lake are of fine gravel suitable for road ballast. 

There are two very extensive outwash plains, each with an area of 
several townships, associated with the moraines in this county. One in 
the eastern part, known as the Parkers Prairie Plain, has an altitude of 
1,450 to 1,500 feet, and slopes northeastward to Crow Wing River. It 
is an outwash from a prominent moraine, known as the Leaf Hills, which 
runs along its western border, and from which a very prominent spur, 
known as Leaf Mountain, extends southwestward to Christina Lake. 

To the west of the Leaf Hills there is a narrow till plain succeeded 
by another extensive outwash plain which surrounds Otter Tail and 
Battle lakes and which was formed as an outwash from the great morainic 
system lying west of it. These outwash plains have a rather light sandy 
loam soil, but they were among the earliest areas in the county to be 
farmed, and are still yielding good returns under skillful management. 

DOUGLAS COUNTY 

Douglas County is situated in western Minnesota with Alexandria as 
the county seat. Its land area is 648 square miles, and its lakes, which 
are very numerous, are estimated to occupy ^2 square miles. The eastern 
part of the county is drained northeastward through Long Prairie River 
to Crow Wing and thence to the Mississippi ; but the remainder of the 
county slopes southwestward and drains in that direction to the Chip- 
pewa, which flows southward into Minnesota River. The greater part 
of this county was timbered with hardwood, but prairie extended into 
its western edge. 

The western half of the county is very largely occupied by a promi- 
nent morainic system which formed along the east side of the Keewatin 
ice sheet. There are extensive outwash plains of sandy gravel along the 



GRANT COUNTY 73 

eastern edge of this morainic system. Farther east there are till plains 
which extend into Todd County. These, as well as the morainic system, 
have a sheet of young gray drift formed by the Keewatin ice field. 

The morainic areas as well* as the till plains are largely under culti- 
vation, and they are chiefly of clayey till with pebbly clay loam soil. The 
gravel plains have a light sandy loam soil. They are largely under cul- 
tivation, and except in very dry seasons have a good yield of cereals. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Douglas County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine with sandy to gravelly loam soil 73 ii.S9 

Moraine with pebbly clay loam soil 288 44-44 

Outwash gravel and sand plains 135 20.83 

Till plains with prevailing clay loam soil 150 23.14 

648 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Douglas County from Census of 19:0 

Rural population 12,165 or 18.8 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 85.4 

Per cent of farm land improved 62.0 

Average acres per farm 136.5 

Average improved acres per farm 97.0 

Value of all farm property $16,312,224 

Per cent of increase, 1900 to 1910 97.2 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,432,300 

Cereals (wheat, oats, barley, corn, rye) $1,175,703 

Other grains and seeds $97,751 

Hay and forage* $310,268 

Vegetables $65,971 

Fruits and nuts $10,250 

All other crops $73,522 

•Tame grass, 38,775 tons; wild grass, 43,831 tons. 

GRANT COUNTY 

Grant County is situated in the western part of Minnesota with Elbow 
Lake as the county seat. This is a prairie county with only narrow 
fringes of timber along lakes and streams. The eastern part of the 
county is drained southward through the Pomme de Terre and Chippewa 
rivers to the Minnesota. The western part is drained westward through 
Mustinka River to Lake Traverse, and thence northward by Red River 
to Hudson Bay. 

About 128 square miles in the western part of the county were covered 
by the waters of the glacial Lake Agassiz. The remainder of the county 
is largely a till plain of young gray drift. The eastern edge is strongly 
morainic, and there are narrow moraines of feeble expression leading 
north to south across the county. Narrow strips of gravelly and sandy 
land border the Chippewa, the Pomme de Terre, and the south flowing 
part of the Mustinka rivers, which appear to mark lines of glacial drain- 
age. Several of the higher lakes of this county have been drained by 
deep ditching and their beds converted into farm land. Several others 



74 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

of the lakes are in the bottom of valleys that appear to be partially filled 
interglacial valleys. Some partly filled valleys are without streams, and 
these present a rougher topography than the bordering upland, with some 
likeness to morainic topography, but this topography seems to have been 
developed locally because of irregularity of the ice movement in its pas- 
sage across the valleys. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Grant Cotinty 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraines chiefly with pebbly clay loam soil loo 18.08 

Gravelly outwash and sandy glacial drainage 35 6.33 

Till plains with prevailing clay loam soil 290 52.44 

Sandy deposits of Lake Agassiz 28 5.06 

Clayey deposits of Lake Agassiz 1 00 1 8.08 

553 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for Grant County from Census of igio 

Rural population 6,379 or 11.4 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 83.8 

Per cent of farm land improved 86.8 

Average acres per farm 250.2 

Average improved acres per farm 217.2 

Value of all farm property $1 3,482,322 

Per cent of increase, 1900 to 1910 121.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,232,674 

Cereals (oats, wheat, barley, corn, rye) $1,835,178 

Other grains and seeds $167,687 

Hay and forage* $198,881 

Vegetables $23,424 

Fruits and nuts $2,400 

All other crops $5,104 

•Tame grass, 23,991 tons; wild grass, 28,738 tons. 

WILKIN COUNTY 

Wilkin County is on the western edge of Minnesota with Brecken- 
ridge as its county seat, and has an area of 745 square miles. With the 
exception of about 50 square miles in the northeast part it was covered 
by the waters of Lake Agassiz. Its surface is consequently level and 
nearly featureless. There is, however, a fall of over 300 feet in crossing 
the county from east to west along the northern line in a distance of about 
25 miles. In the southern end of the county the fall is about 50 feet in 
a distance of 15 miles. The county had few natural lines of drainage, 
but side ditches follow nearly all the highways and receive water from 
tile drains on the farms and carry it to natural drainage lines. Otter Tail 
River and Rabbit Creek run across the southern part of the county and 
Deerhorn Creek its northeast corner, while Bois des Sioux and Red River 
flow on the west border. 

The percentages of classes of land in the northern part of the county 
have been given in Bulletin 12. In that part of the county there are 50 
square miles of clayey moraine and till plain, with pebbly clay loam soil, 



TRAVERSE COUNTY 75 

standing above the level of Lake Agassiz. But in the part south of the 
median line of the state only about 2 square miles of till plains stood above 
the lake limits. In the northern part there are about 160 square miles 
of lake-washed drift with pebbly soil and but a slight cover of lake silt, 
and about 90 square miles covered by lake sand. There thus remain only 
70 square miles of that part with sufficiently heavy deposits of lake silt 
to make a black clay loam soil. In the southern part of the county the 
lake silt and black clay loam soil form a strip several miles wide border- 
ing Red River and the Bois des Sioux. As one passes eastward the 
silt thins out gradually, so that clayey till is at the surface, or within reach 
of the plow, in the eastern part of the county. The soil is somewhat sandy 
near Foxhome and east of Nashua, but grades into clay loam at the west. 

The shore lines of Lake Agassiz are usually gravelly ridges which 
furnish good building sites and roadways, and were thus used extensively 
in the early days of settlement. These shore lines, though running for 
long distances, have an aggregate area of but a few square miles, prob- 
ably less than i per cent of the county. 

The census for 1910 reports about 44 square miles of wild grass cut 
in 1909. This grass was in areas that were still too wet for cultivation. 
There is probably not more than 100 square miles of poorly drained land 
remaining in the county, and part of this can be reclaimed by systematic 
ditching. 

Farm and Crop Data for Wilkin County from Census of igio 

Rural population 5,585 or 7.5 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 70. 5 

Per cent of farm land improved 94.7 

Average acres per farm 340.3 

Average improved acres per farm 322.8 

Value of all farm property $i 5,832,394 

Per cent of increase, 1900 to 1910 118.3 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,415,558 

Cereals produced in 1909 (wheat, oats, barley, corn, rye) $2,010,119 

Other grains and seeds $123,043 

Hay and forage* $187,102 

Vegetables $90,159 

Fruits and nuts $ i ,464 

All other crops $3,671 

•Tame grass, 16,641 tons; wild grass, 25,733 tons. 

TRAVERSE COUNTY 

Traverse County is situated on the western border of the state with 
Wheaton as its county seat. It is a prairie county and there is very little 
land that is not under cultivation. Such land, however, is found along 
the bluffs and ravines on the borders of Lake Traverse which are too 
rough to cultivate. There are also several miles of swamp land in the 
northeast part of the county along the Mustinka valley and between that 
valley and Tintah which are being reclaimed by ditching. The drainage 



76 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

is nearly all northward to the Red River valley. Mustinka River and 
its tributaries ramify the eastern part, while Lake Traverse and Bois des 
Sioux River discharge along the west border to Red River. A few square 
miles in the southwest corner are tributary to Big Stone Lake and Minne- 
sota River. 

Only the southern end of the county stood above the level of Lake 
Agassiz, and this is occupied by a till plain except two narrow morainic 
strips which cross the area between Lake Traverse and the south end 
of the Lake Agassiz area. The western of these moraines has many 
small knolls and a diversified soil, but the eastern one has a gently un- 
dulating surface and a somewhat uniform pebbly clay loam soil similar 
to that of the bordering till plain. 

This county embraces the head of the outlet of Lake Agassiz, and 
there are channels cut in the bed at the lower levels of the lake along the 
entire west side of the county and also along the southwest flowing por- 
tion of Mustinka River, but in the higher stages the lake opened directly 
into the large valley now occupied by Lake Traverse. The highest limits 
of Lake Agassiz waters were 1,065 to 1,070 feet, but the outlet was cut 
down to about 970 feet during subsequent southward discharge of the 
lake. 

There are very bowldery areas in central and northwestern Traverse 
County within the limits of the Lake Agassiz. The bowlders were prob- 
ably dropped in part directly from the shrinking ice border. The erosion 
of the channels above noted may also have tended to concentrate them. 

At the extreme southern end of the Lake Agassiz area in T. 126, 
Rs. 45 and 46W., and the southeast part of T. 127, R. 45W., there is a 
coating of fine sandy loam nearly free from pebbles with a depth of 2 
to 5 feet, so the till there is seldom exposed. But elsewhere in the county 
the till in the lake bed is very scantily covered with lake sediment. The 
northern end of the county has a black clay loam soil, but even there a 
pebbly clay or till is found at a depth of a few inches. 

The shore lines of Lake Agassiz are composed of sandy gravel. There 
are also gravel bars and small areas of sandy gravel on a high tract be- 
tween the low channels of the lake crossed by the Milwaukee and St. Paul 
Railroad just before it passes into South Dakota. Some of these gravel 
bars are at the level of the Norcross beach, and others at the level of 
the Tintah beach. The main shore of the Tintah beach follows the east 
side of the southwest flowing portion of the Mustinka River. 



BIG STONE COUNTY yy 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Traverse County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine chiefly clayey, with pebbly clay loam soil 36 6.34 

Till plain with pebbly clay loam soil 150 36.41 

Lake-washed till in bed of Lake Agassiz 240 43.24 

Sandy to sandy loam soil in bed of Lake Agassiz 90 15.83 

Gravelly beaches and bars 4 0.71 

Marshes and bogs i3 3.17 

Black clay loam, lacustrine 30 5.28 

568 99-98 

Farm and Crop Data for Traverse County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 5,286 or 9 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 87.4 

Per cent of farm land improved 95.8 

Average acres per farm 337.I 

Average improved acres per farm 333.9 

Value of all farm property $16,296,339 

Per cent of increase, 1900 to 1910 133.0 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,720,072 

Cereals (wheat, oats, barley, corn, rye) $2,333,966 

Other grains and seeds $171,316 

Hay and forage* $176,589 

Vegetables $34,700 

Fruits and nuts $-2,535 

All other crops $916 

* Tame grass, 21,163 tons; wild grass, 20,681 tons. 

BIG STONE COUNTY 

Big Stone County is situated on the western border of the state, with 
Ortonville as the county seat, and has an area of 491 square miles. The 
drainage is mainly to the Minnesota River, but the northeast corner 
drains northward to Mustinka River and the Red River of the North. 
The natural drainage lines are very imperfect and large ditches have 
been carried along highways to connect with the natural drainage lines. 
The dividing ridge in the northeast part of the county is 1,170 to 1,180 
feet, or fully 100 feet above the highest shore of Lake Agassiz and over 
200 feet above Big Stone Lake. It has the appearance of an overridden 
moraine, for there are numerous basins and swales along it; but the 
prominent parts have a smooth surface of clayey calcareous till like that 
of the till plains of this region. 

The greater part of Big Stone County is a till plain with pebbly clay 
loam soil. It is thickly set with small lakes and basins, estimated to 
occupy about 10 per cent of the surface. There is a morainic belt in the 
northwest part of the county leading southward past Beardsley to Big 
Stone Lake. It follows the south side of that lake in South Dakota, but 
comes back into Minnesota at the southeast end of the lake and traverses 
the south part of Big Stone County, making a detour northward around 
the head of a sandy outwash plain east of Odessa. There is an outwash 
plain along much of its border, both in northwestern and in southern Big 



78 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Stone County. The outwash plains stand 50 to 75 feet above the broad 
bottoms of the Minnesota valley. In places there are islands in the valley 
with the outwash preserved on them, one of which is to be seen in the 
village of Odessa, and others farther east. 

In the Minnesota valley there are ledges of granite occupying perhaps 
10 per cent of its bottoms, around which granite bowlders are numerous 
over large areas. A considerable part of the valley is also too wet for 
cultivation. 

The soil on the moraines is a loose textured clayey to gravelly loam, 
and occasional gravel knolls are present. The outwash plains have a 
rather light sandy soil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Big Stone County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine chiefly of pebbly clay loam soil 75 15.28 

Outwash sand and gravel plains (outside Minnesota valley) 52 10.59 

Till plains including ponds and basins, largely of pebbly clay loam soil 331 67.41 

Minnesota bottoms (including rocky ledges) 33 6.72 

491 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Big Stone County from Census of 1910 

Kural population 5,165 or 10.5 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90.0 

Per cent of fann land improved 85.8 

Average acres per farm 294.4 

Average improved acres per farm 253.6 

Value of all farm property $14,262,257 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 131. 8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,431,452 

Cereals (wheat, oats, barley, com, rye) $2,074,389 

Other grains and seeds $ 1 5 1 ,276 

Hay and forage* $158,628 

Vegetables $40,505 

Fruits and nuts $4,49 1 

All other crops $2,163 

•Tame grass, 18,694 tons; wild grass, 34,221 tons. 

STEVENS COUNTY 

Stevens County lies east of Big Stone and Traverse counties in the 
western part of the state, with Morris as the county seat. It has a land 
area of 564 square miles, while small lakes give an additional area of 
about 12 square miles. The drainage is mainly southward through 
Pomme de Terre and Chippewa rivers to the Minnesota, but the north- 
west corner of the county drains northwestward to the Red River 
drainage. 

Pomme de Terre River leads through several lakes. There are also 
lakes on the uplands each side and in partially filled interglacial valleys. 
Those on the uplands have in some cases been completely drained by deep 
ditching, and their beds converted into farm land. 



POPE COUNTY 79 

The greater part of the county is a plain of clayey till with black clay 
loam soil. The surface is somewhat rougher and the character of the 
soil more variable in some filled interglacial valleys than on the higher 
and smoother tracts above them. 

There is a moraine along part of the east edge of the county. There 
are also other lines of knolly land suggesting later ice borders in the 
interior of the county. Strips of gravelly land, formed by glacial drain- 
age, occur along Pomme de Terre and Chippewa valleys, and a sandy 
plain of considerable extent spreads from southeastern Stevens County 
east and south into Pope and Swift counties. 

A few square miles in the northwest part of the county were covered 
by Lake Agassiz, and the soil there is sandy with gravelly strips along 
the shores. 

Just outside the limits of Lake Agassiz, there is a narrow strip ex- 
tending back about to the 1,100 foot contour, which carries a thin de- 
posit of fine sand and silt. This appears to be due to a ponding of the 
waters along the edge of the ice while it was occupying the low land 
later covered by Lake Agassiz. Elsewhere in the county the till plains 
are not covered with such silt, but have a pebbly clay loam soil, much of 
it of dark color. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Stevens County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine chiefly of pebbly clay loam soil 30 5.3a 

Gravelly and sandy outwash plains 35 6.20 

Sandy loam of ponded waters 35 6.20 

Sand and gravel of Lake Agassiz shores and bed 4 0.71 

Till piaia chiefly of pebbly clay loam soil 460 81.56 

564 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for Stevens County from Census of rgio 

Rural population 5,480 or 9.7 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 84.5 

Per cent of farm land improved 86.7 

Average acres per farm 300.4 

Average improved acres per farm 260.6 

Value of all farm property $13,774,191 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 107.0 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,335,888 

Cereals (wheat, oats, barley, corn, rye) $1,914,060 

Other grains and seeds $1 43,209 

Hay and forage* $236,594 

Vegetables $37,173 

Fruits and nuts $1,699 

All other crops $3, 153 

* Tame grass, 27,353 tons; wild grass, 27,959 tons. 

POPE COUNTY 

Pope County is located in the west central part of the state, with 
Glenwood as the county seat. It embraces 20 townships or about 720 



8o SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

square miles, of which 27 square miles are in lakes, leaving a land area 
of 693 square miles. Lake Minnewaska, on the shores of which Glenwood 
stands, covers an area of about 13 square miles. 

The drainage is nearly all southward and southwestward through 
Chippewa River and its tributaries to the Minnesota; but the eastern 
edge of the county is drained eastward, partly by Sauk River and partly 
by Crow River to the Mississippi. 

In Pope County the great morainic system formed on the east side 
of the Keewatin ice field turns from a southward to an eastward course, 
and a very extensive outwash apron occupies this angle outside the 
morainic system. It covers several townships in the east part of Pope 
County, and in southwestern Stearns and northern Kandiyohi counties. 
This outwash plain is very elevated, its highest part being above 1,400 
feet, and it slopes northeastward to about 1,300 feet at its eastern edge. 
Only a small part of the great morainic system is as elevated as this out- 
wash area. In the western part of the county there is a moraine which 
follows down Chippewa valley, and this has an outwash plain covering 
the southwest part of the county, which stands 1,050 to 1,100 feet. A 
narrow till plain in western Pope County lies between this moraine and 
the large morainic system to the east. There is also a till plain east of the 
great outwash plain in the northeast part of Pope County. 

There is some rough land in the morainic areas with very stony soil, 
and the drift is loose textured and gravelly for a short distance next 
to the outwash plain. But a large part of the great morainic system has 
a pebbly clay loam soil. The till plains have a somewhat uniform pebbly 
clay loam soil. The outwash plains of eastern Pope County have a light 
sandy soil, but there are boggy depressions 6f considerable extent scat- 
tered over it which contain muck and peat. The sandy plain of the 
southwest corner of the county has a light soil, and it also is traversed by 
boggy depressions with mucky soil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Pope County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine, chiefly of pebbly clay loam soil, with included boggy land 300 43-29 

Gravelly and sandy outwash plains with included bogs 200 28.86 

Till plains with mixed soil, partly sandy and gravelly 38 5.48 

Till plains chiefly with pebbly clay loam soil 155 22.37 

693 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Pope County from Census of igio 

Rural population 9,157 or 14.65 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 84.2 

Per cent of farm land improved 76.7 

Average acres per farm 226.4 

Average improved acres per farm 173-7 

Value of all farm property $15,479,163 

Percentage of increase 1900 to 1910 103.0 



STEARNS COUNTY 8i 

Farm and Crop Data for Pope County (Continued) 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,631,079 

Cereals (wheat, oats, barley, corn, rye) $2,079,901 

Other grains and seeds $195,565 

Hay and forage* $292,49 1 

Vegetables $38,283 

Fruits and nuts $6,589 

All other crops $18,250 

•Tame grass, 33,219 tons; wild grass, 46,050 tons. 

STEARNS COUNTY 

Stearns County is located in the south central part of the state, with 
St. Cloud as the county seat. The entire county drains eastward to the 
Mississippi which forms its eastern boundary. Sauk River is the main 
drainage line within the county, but the southwest part is drained by 
Crow River, and the southeast and the northeast parts by smaller drainage 
lines directly tributary to the Mississippi. 

The eastern part of the county has a prominent morainic system of 
the Patrician red drift, as well as till plains and outwash plains of red 
drift. But the central and western parts are covered by the Keewatin 
gray drift which overlaps the western edge of the red drift. The gray 
drift also covers the southern edge of the county clear out to the Missis- 
sippi. Its border crosses that stream 6 or 7 miles below St. Cloud. Lines 
of glacial drainage from the gray drift carried gravel containing much 
limestone down to the Mississippi through areas of red drift in the 
southeast part of the county and spread it as far north as St. Joseph and 
St. Cloud. At that time there was eastward drainage along the north 
side of the Grantsburg lobe from the Mississippi to the St. Croix River. 

The gray drift in northwestern Stearns County has an attenuated edge 
that extends several miles east of the first well defined moraine. This 
moraine follows Sauk River valley from Sauk Center to New Munich 
on the south side of the stream and then crosses to the north side and 
runs eastward to Cold Spring. There is another till plain on the south- 
west side of this moraine, extending to the great gravel plain formed 
along the outer edge of the strong morainic system in Pope County. The 
outer member of that morainic system comes into the southern part of 
Stearns County near Paynesville, and runs northeastward nearly to Cold 
Spring and then turns southward, and passes into Meeker County south 
of Kimball. 

The red drift area, and the east part of the gray drift in this county 
were covered by forest, but the southwest part of the county was prairie 
except some brushy land on the gravel plain. 

There are numerous small outcrops of granite in the eastern part 
of the county along the Mississippi and the Sauk River valleys, and also 
in the northwest part at Melrose and at Sauk Center. The largest area 
is in western St. Cloud Township, where it is at or near the surface over 



82 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

several square miles. The combined areas of outcrops in the county are 
estimated, however, to be not more than lo square miles, and part of this 
has soil enough to be farm land. 

The area of wet land is estimated by Ralph to be 62 square miles. 
This apparently includes the lakes as well as swamps and peat bogs. 
Some of the lakes are shallow enough to be drained by deep ditching. 

The moraines of red drift are in places so rough and stony that they 
are still in forest. There is, however, a considerable part of the red drift 
with only a moderate number of bowlders and cobble stones. The red 
drift till plains are largely cleared and farmed. The gray drift area, both 
in moraines and till plains, is of high fertility, much of it being a pebbly 
clay loam. The outwash plains both of gray drift and red have a light 
soil but are extensively cultivated. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Stearns County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly red drift moraine, sandy and stony loam 115 8.44 

Clayey red drift moraine, pebbly clay loam S5 4-03 

Red drift till plain, chiefly pebbly clay loam 120 8.81 

Red drift outwash, sandy and stony loam 50 3-67 

Gray drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam 150 i i.oi 

Gray drift till plain, chiefly pebbly clay loam 430 3^-57 

Gray drift outwash, sandy and stony loam 370 27.16 

Swamps and peaty bogs 62 4.55 

Rocky areas »o o-74 

1,362 99<>8 

Farm and Crop Data for Stearns County from Census of igio 

Rural population 26,941 or 30 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 87.3 

Per cent of farm land improved S9-4 

Average acres per farm « 78.9 

Average improved acres per farm 106.3 

Value of all farm property $34i548,484 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 85.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $5,384,327 

Cereals (wheat, oats, corn, barley, rye) $4, ' 78,967 

Other grains and seeds $161,832 

Hay and forage* $617,326 

Vegetables $219,733 

Fruits and nuts $12,906 

All other crops $i93,573 

* Tame grass, 50,001 tons; wild grass, 106,587 tons. 

BENTON COUNTY 

Benton County is situated on the east side of Mississippi Ri\-er in 
central Minnesota, with Foley as the county seat. The drainage tends 
to take courses parallel with the Mississippi rather than toward it. Con- 
sequently very little water enters the Mississippi in this county. The 
western part drains through Elk River southeastward across Sherburne 
County, while the southeast part drains southeastward into Rum River, 
which enters the Mississippi at Anoka. 



BENTON COUNTY S3 

A large part of the county is occupied by a red drift till plain. The 
only moraine is a narrow one in the northeast part. There are sandy 
plains of outwash gravels on the west and south borders, and narrow 
belts of dune sand associated with them. The till plain has partially filled 
interglacial valleys which were eroded in the old gray drift which under- 
lies the red Wisconsin drift at moderate depths and outcrops in some 
of the bluffs. The red drift of this county though somewhat stony has 
usually sufficient clay admixture to make a good soil. 

An esker, or sharp gravel ridge, several miles in length, runs from 
Ronnely southwestward, passing just south of Foley. It is of consider- 
able value for railway and road ballast. 

Granite outcrops are numerous in the western part of the county, 
where rock is struck at slight depth in a strip 2 to 3 miles wide and 
several miles long, extending from Sauk Rapids northward past Watab. 
There are also small outcrops in the northeast part of the county along 
West Rum River. 

The wet lands of Benton County are estimated by Ralph to occupy 
10,000 acres or 15.6 square miles. A considerable part of the wet land 
is in the sandy plain along the Mississippi. Some of it is in the line 
of the partially filled interglacial valleys. 

The county was largely covered with hardwood forest, but in the 
sandy lands along the Mississippi valley and in the southern part of the 
county there was a light growth of scrub oak. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Benton County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine, red drift, chiefly pebbly clay loam soil 10 2.47 

Red drift till plain, chiefly pebbly clay loam soil 288 71. 11 

Eskers and sharp gravelly knolls 2 0.50 

Red drift outwash plains and sandy glacial drainage 70 17.28 

Rock outcrops 20 4.94 

Swamps IS 3.70 

405 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Benton County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 7,586 or 18.7 per square mile 

Per cent of land in farms 75.3 

Per cent of farm land improved 55.8 

Average acres per farm 1 52.6 

Average improved acres per farm 85.1 

Value of all farm property $8,389,346 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 115.6 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,176,027 

Cereals (oats, wheat, corn, rye, barley) $775,985 

Other grains and seeds $22,896 

Hay and forage* $209,65 1 

Vegetables $104,496 

Fruits and nuts $6,709 

All other crops $56,290 

•Tame grass, 14,256 tons; wild grass, 34,221 tons. 



84 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

SHERBURNE COUNTY 

Sherburne County is situated east of the Mississippi River, in the 
south central part of Minnesota, with Elk River as the county seat. It 
has a land area of 448 square miles, to which should be added 15 to 20 
square miles in lakes. 

Elk River gathers nearly all the drainage of Sherburne County and 
parallels the Mississippi from the northwest to the southeast corner of 
the county, where it enters the Mississippi. The eastern part of the 
county drains into Rum River and thence to the Mississippi River at 
Anoka. 

With the exception of the northern edge of the county, where there 
are a few square miles of clayey ground moraine of red drift, the Grants- 
burg lobe of the Keewatin ice field covered the entire county. Its 
morainic ridges and knolls have gray drift material with a large red 
drift admixture. The movement of the Keewatin ice was northeast- 
ward, and the drainage on its north side took a northeastward course 
along or near the ice border to the end of the lobe and thence down the 
St. Croix valley. Part of it was ponded, as indicated in the discussion 
of Mille Lacs and Kanabec counties, but there seems to have been a 
rather free current across northern Sherburne County which deposited 
sand and fine gravel rather than mud or silt. 

Along the Mississippi and Elk rivers there is a long strip of gravelly 
outwash, with light sandy soil. To the east of this strip are large areas 
covered by fine dune sand, above which there rise a few sharp morainic 
knolls and ridges. There are gravel plains with light sandy soil also along 
St. Francis River in the north part of the county. A large area in the 
southeast part of the county comprises mainly moraines of sandy till with 
loamy soil. 

The amount of wet land in Sherburne County is estimated to be 
10,000 acres, and is largely in marshy bogs among sandy areas. 

The variable character of the soil is set forth in the table below : 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Sherburne County 

Square miles Per cent 

Sandy gray drift moraine; soil sandy and stony loam 42 9.38 

Clayey gray drift ; soil pebbly clay loam 15 3. 34 

Sandy gray drift till plain; soil sandy to stony loam 14 3.13 

Clayey gray drift till plain; soil pebbly clay loam 6 1.34 

Clayey red drift till plain; soil pebbly clay loam 12 2.68 

Marshes and swamps 15 3.34 

Outwash gravel and sand 180 40.18 

Dune sand 1 64 36.60 

448 99-99 



ISANTI COUNTY 85 

Farm and Crop Data for Sherburne County from Census of igio 

Rural population 5,591 or 12.5 per square mile. 

Per cent of land in farms 7i-3 

Per cent of farm land improved S4.2 

Average acres per farm I7i'9 

Average improved acres per farm 93.2 

Value of all farm property $7,432,444 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 ii7-3 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,039,917 

Cereals (corn, oats, rye, wheat, barley) $SS8,392 

Other grains and seeds $9,500 

Hay and forage* $148,105 

Vegetables $289,746 

Fruits and nuts $2,417 

All other crops $3ii757 

•Tame grass, 12,281 tons; wild grass, 18,342 tons. 

ISANTI COUNTY 

Isanti County is located in the eastern part of Minnesota, with Cam- 
bridge as the county seat. The greater part of the county is drained 
southward through Rum River to the Mississippi, but the southeast part 
drains eastward to the St. Croix River. 

This county, Hke Sherburne, is extensively covered by fine dune sand 
which has found lodgement on till areas and buried the till to a depth 
of many feet. Outside the dune sand area there are moraines and till 
plains and small outwash gravel plains, chiefly in the northern and eastern 
parts of the county. There is, however, a small morainic area in the 
southwest part. 

The gray till of the Grantsburg lobe extends nearly to the northern 
limits of the county. Ponded waters outside the ice laid down lake clays 
in the northwest corner of the county. A few square miles along the 
north edge of the county have the red till at the surface. The gray drift 
shows considerable variation in character of soil, both in moraines and 
till plains, part being clayey and part loose-textured and sandy. 

On the dune sand a large amount of truck gardening has been devel- 
oped, and it has thus become fully as profitable as the till areas. The 
sand is so fine as to hold considerable capillary water which carries crops 
through seasons of drouth. 

The wet lands of the county are estimated by Ralph to occupy 20,000 
acres or 31 square miles. Some of the lakes may have been included in 
this estimate, as they are very shallow, and in places marshy. Levels 
of some of the lakes of the western part of the county once stood several 
feet higher than at present. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Isanti County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine, sandy or stony loam 40 9.05 

Gray drift moraine, pebbly clay loam 35 7.92 

Gray drift till plain, sandy to stony loam 35 7.92 



86 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Isanti County (Continued) 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift till plain, pebbly clay loam 50 1 1 .31 

Red drift till plain, pebbly clay loam 10 2.26 

Outwash gravel and sand 14 3.17 

Lake clays in glacially ponded waters 9 2.04 

Fine dune sand 218 49-32 

Marshes and swamps 31 7.0 1 

443 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Isanti County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 10,793 or 24.4 per square mile 

Per cent of land in farms 84.0 

Per cent of farm land improved 46. i 

Average acres per farm 115.2 

Average improved acres per farm 53.1 

Value of all farm property $9>i 23,309 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 110.6 

Value of all crops in 1909 $i>366,587 

Cereals (oats, wheat, corn, rye, barley) $521,758 

Other grains and seeds $36,521 

Hay and forage* $207,647 

Vegetables $518,608 

Fruits and nuts $41278 

All other crops $77,775 

•Tame grass, 18,002 tons; wild grass, 27,695 tons. 

ANOKA COUNTY 

Anoka County is situated in eastern Minnesota on the east side of 
the Mississippi River, with Anoka as its county seat. Nearly all the 
county drains southward or southwestward into the Mississippi, mainly 
through Rum River. A few square miles in the northeast part drain 
northeastward to the St. Croix River. 

This county is extensively covered by fine dune sand, and the sand 
areas include large wire grass marshes, the dunes having blocked up the 
drainage. Most of the dunes were probably formed in the closing part 
of the glacial epoch, but there are a few places in which they are still 
active and have blowouts. 

The entire county falls within the limits of the Grantsburg lobe of the 
Keewatin ice field, and carries a sheet of young gray drift. This is ex- 
posed at the eastern edge of the dune area in a plain of clayey calcareous 
till in the southeast part of the county. In the northwest part of the 
county, morainic ridges of the gray drift rise prominently above the 
surrounding plains. There is a fine gravelly outwash immediately bor- 
dering these morainic ridges on the east and south as far out as Rum 
River. The dune sand sets in east of the outwash plain, and apparently 
covers the till plain. The fertility of the dune sand is much greater than 
that of the plains of coarser material, owing probably to its yielding water 
by capillary action in seasons of drouth. But, in a few places renewed 
dune action has made very sandy loose soil. 



CHISAGO COUNTY 87 

The wet land of the county is largely embraced in the wire grass 

marshes which are estimated by Ralph to cover about 17 per cent of the 

county. Outside the marshes the county is timbered largely with scrub 
oak. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Anoka County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine, sandy to stony loam lo 2.18 

Gray drift moraine, pebbly clay loam 12 2.61 

Gray drift till plain, sandy to stony loam 9 1.96 

Gray drift till plain, pebbly clay loam 30 6.54 

Outwash plains of sandy gravel 75 16.34 

Marshes and swamps 78 1 7.00 

Dune sand 245 53.37 



459 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Anoka County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 7,710 or 17 per square mile 

Per cent of land In farms 69.1 

Per cent of farm land improved 50.0 

Average acres per farm 140.6 

Average improved acres per farm 70.3 

Value of all farm property $9,478,621 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 128.5 

Value fif a!! crops in 1909 $i,ii8,2j3 

Cereals (corn, oats, rye, wheat, barley) $393i43S 

Other grains and seeds $9>383 

Hay and forage* $236,258 

Vegetables $406,395 

Fruits and nuts $12,597 

All other crops $60, 1 44 

•Tame grass, 16,552 tons; wild grass, 22,814 tons. 

CHISAGO COUNTY 

Chisago County is situated on the eastern border of the state with 
Center City as the county seat. It has a land area of 427 square miles, 
and lakes occupy an additional 30 square miles. The county all drains 
to the St. Croix River. The lakes which abound in the southern part of 
the county seem to be in the line of partly filled valleys. 

The entire county, except a few square miles in the southeast corner, 
was covered by the Grantsburg lobe of the Keewatin ice field. The most 
extensive soil class is a pebbly clay loam in a broad plain of young gray 
till. Near the eastern edge of the county the gray till in places only 
veneers ridges and knolls of the red drift. There is a broad strip of dune 
sand in the western part of the county, extending east to Sunrise river 
and north as far as Harris. 

There is a well defined moraine of the gray drift along the east side 
of Sunrise River, formed on the southeast side of the Grantsburg lobe, 
and also one in the extreme eastern part of the county. Moraines in 



88 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

the northwest part were formed on the northwest edge of the ice lobe. 
The dune sand covers a low plain along the axis of movement of the 
ice lobe. 

On the dune sand area there were oak openings, but the heavier soil 
had a more dense forest, largely of oak. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Chisago County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam 80 18.74 

Gray drift moraine, sandy to stony loam 20 4.68 

Gray drift till plain, sandy to stony loam 12 2.81 

Gray drift till plain, pebbly clay loam 142 33-25 

Dune sand 90 21.08 

Valley alluvium, sandy 60 14.05 

Swamp 23 5-38 

457 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Chisago County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 9,547 or 22.4 per square mile 

Per cent of land in farms 82.6 

Per cent of farm land improved 46.4 

Average acres per farm 1 12.6 

Average improved acres per farm 52.2 

Value of all farm property $12,289,044 

Per cent of increase 1 900 to 1 9 1 o 1 08. 1 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1, 544,5 17 

Cereals (oats, wheat, corn, barley, rye) $616,999 

Other grains and seeds $5>i3i 

Hay and forage* $412,579 

Vegetables $407,986 

Fruits and nuts $7,802 

All other crops $94,020 

"Tame grass, 41,363 tons; wild grass, 20,020 tons. 

WASHINGTON COUNTY 

Washington County is located on the eastern border of the state with 
Stillwater as the county seat. Its land area is 397 square miles, and there 
is an additional 21 square miles in lakes. The greater part of the county 
drains into the St. Croix River, but a strip along the western edge drains 
more directly to the Mississippi. The valleys of both these rivers have 
been deeply channeled and terraced by lines of glacial drainage and 
larger rivers from the outlets of the glacial lakes Duluth and Agassiz, 
so that the streams are below the 700-foot contour, while the bordering 
uplands are 900 to 1,050 feet or more. 

The Keewatin young gray drift extends a few miles into the north- 
west part of the county, northward from White Bear Lake. But in the 
remainder of the county the red drift is at the surface. The border of 
the young or Wisconsin red drift lies back a few miles northwest of the 
junction of the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers, leaving the older red 
drift exposed in a narrow strip on the west side of the St. Croix below 



RAMSEY COUNTY 89 

the village of Afton. This older red drift has a more mature drainage 
development than the young red drift, and very few undrained depres- 
sions. The later drift is very thickly set with lakes and undrained de- 
pressions, and is very largely of morainic topography. The young gray 
drift forms only a veneer over the red drift, but is sufficiently thick to 
give it the characteristic pebbly clay loam soil. The red drift is largely 
a stony loam, though with a considerable admixture of clay. 

The county was occupied very largely by oak forest sufficiently open 
to be classed as oak openings, and farming development started in this 
county very early. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Washington County 

Square miles Per cent 

Old red drift till plain chiefly pebbly clay loam 35 8.82 

Red drift moraine chiefly pebbly clay loam 139 35.00 

Red drift till plain chiefly pebbly clay loam 25 6.30 

Red drift outwash and glacial drainage, sandy to stony loam 80 20.16 

Gray drift moraine chiefly pebbly clay loam 28 7.05 

Gray drift till plain chiefly pebbly clay loam 22 5.54 

Gray drift outwash, sandy to stony loam i8 4.53 

Dune sand 5 i .26 

Valley alluvium, sandy and stony 30 7.36 

Swamps and bogs 15 3.78 



397 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Washington County from Census of igio 

Rural population 11,975 or 30 per square mile 

Per cent of land in farms 89. i 

Per cent of farm land improved 67.5 

Average acres per farm 116.5 

Average improved acres per farm 78.6 

Value of all farm property $16,334,539 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 80.2 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,129,792 

Cereals (oats, corn, barley, wheat, rye) $1,291,178 

Other grains and seeds $16,422 

Hay and forage* $463,802 

Vegetables $245 ,008 

Fruits and nuts $39,261 

All other crops $74,121 

* Tame grass, 47,696 tons; wild grass, 6,294 tons. 

Orchard fruits are grown much more than in counties to the north. 
Vegetables are a less important crop than in the more sandy counties to 
the north and northwest. Hay is an important crop, and is more largely 
of cultivated grasses than in the counties remote from the cities of St. 
Paul and Minneapolis, as only the better classes of hay find good market 
in the cities. 

RAMSEY COUNTY 

Ramsey County, with St. Paul as its seat, is located in the southeastern 
part of the state, and is the smallest county in the state, its land area 



90 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

being only i6i square miles. There is an additional 13.45 square miles 
in the lakes and streams within or on the borders of the county. 

The Mississippi River is at and near the southern edge of the county 
in a deep rock-bound valley along part of which broad rock shelves are 
exposed by erosion and the removal of drift deposits by glacial drainage 
which made the valley. A small preglacial valley which comes into the 
present Mississippi near the Union Depot at St. Paul is only partly filled 
with drift, and furnishes a line of entry for several of the railways 
coming into the city from the east and north. 

There are a few square miles of gray drift in the southwest part of 
the county, but the remainder of the county is largely red drift moraine 
with outwash gravel plains among the morainic ridges. The moraines 
though filled with gravelly pockets usually have at surface a rather clayey 
till. The morainic ridges in the western part of the county have a thin 
veneer of gray till, and the drift knolls formed by the Keewatin ice in- 
clude large masses of red till with the gray till. 

The rural population is only 35 persons to the square mile, and the 
development of intensive farming is less than is usual on the outskirts 
of a large city. Ordinarily farming is carried on right up to the city 
limits, and crops of hay are relatively large. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Ramsey County 

Square miles Per cent 

Red drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam 36 22.36 

Red drift outwash, gravelly loam 15 9.31 

Gray drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam 48 29.81 

Gray drift outwash, sandy to gravelly loam 15 9.31 

Dune sand 18 11. 18 

Swamp and bogs 14 8.70 

Valley alluvium, sandy 5 3. n 

Rock terraces and rocky valley beds 10 6.22 

161 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Ramsey County from Census of igio 

Rural population 51647 or 35 per square mile 

Per cent of land in farms 58.8 

Per cent of farm land improved 68.0 

Average acres per farm 56.7 

Average improved acres per farm 38.6 

Value of all farm property $9,726,904 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 74.8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,072,780 

Cereals (oats, corn, barley, wheat, rye) $I97,S77 

Other grains and seeds $2,323 

Hay and forage* $254,970 

Vegetables $383,896 

Fruits and nuts $23,825 

All other crops $210,189 

•Tame grass, 16,175 tons; wild grass, 5,552 tons. 




I. l,K■\^ liK'NI MDI.: \1 XI-. XdRTll dl" ST. \'\\' 




B. KKI) DRll-T MOKAIXF. WITH ( OATIXG OF CRAY DRIFT XOKTH OF ST. PAUL 



HENNEPIN COUNTY 91 

HENNEPIN COUNTY 

Hennepin County, of which Minneapolis is the county seat, has a 
land area of 565 square miles, and a water area in lakes and streams of 
an additional 70 square miles. The drainage is largely eastward or north- 
eastward into the Mississippi, there being only a few small creeks flowing 
to the Minnesota River, which forms part of the southern boundary of 
the county. Minneapolis has, in the Falls of St. Anthony on the Mis- 
sissippi, a very valuable water power, which has greatly added to the 
profits of the farming communities of southern Minnesota by giving 
milling advantages near home and an excellent market for grain. The 
Falls of Minnehaha, and much of the picturesque gorge of the Missis- 
sippi below the falls of St. Anthony are within the limits of Hennepin 
County, as is also the beautiful Lake Minnetonka and numerous smaller 
lakes with attractive scenic features. 

With the exception of less than a square mile near Prospect Park, 
in the east part of Minneapolis, the entire county was covered by the 
Keewatin ice sheet. In the east part of the county, however, a prominent 
red drift moraine was overridden by the Keewatin ice and nearly all 
veneered with the young gray drift. Many of the red gravel plains and 
ridges were greatly disturbed by the encroachment of the Keewatin ice, 
and the red drift was thus gathered up and locally incorporated with the 
gray. From Lake Minnetonka to the north, south, and west, the Keewatin 
drift is so thick that exposures of the red drift are rare. Outwash plains 
of gray drift gravel and sand are extensive in the district south of Minne- 
apolis between the Mississippi and Minnesota valleys. They are also 
notable within the city and northward along the Mississippi valley. 
These level outwash areas are largely devoted to truck gardening. The 
rich black loam is highly fertilized and is very productive. The moraines, 
on the border of Lake Minnetonka, are largely in orchards and vineyards, 
but elsewhere are commonly given over to general farming. 

The occurrence of numerous bogs and marshy depressions among the 
knolls and ridges causes much waste land, while the hills and ridges 
themselves are too steep for easy cultivation. The percentage of im- 
proved land is therefore low, except on the sandy outwash plains, and 
many hillside slopes are still in forest. The presence of the forests adds 
greatly to the beauty of suburban homes and this perhaps more than 
offsets the agricultural disadvantages. Such suburban occupancy will 
naturally spread widely over the morainic areas west of Minneapolis, 
and especially around Lake Minnetonka with its numerous bays and arms. 

According to the census of 1910, the area planted to potatoes in 1909 
amounted to 27 square miles, and about 6 square miles to other vegetables. 
The gross income from vegetable raising averaged $36,500.00 per square 



92 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

mile, or about $57.00 per acre. Large areas near Minneapolis are well 
adapted to truck gardening, and will naturally be utilized thus in the 
near future. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Hennepin County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine (partly over red drift moraine) soil pebbly clay loam... 19S 34-49 

Gray drift till plain, pebbly clay loam m '9.63 

Gray drift outwash and glacial drainage, sandy gravel n6 20-53 

_ , 4 0.71 

Dune sand _ 

Valley alluvium, largely sandy 35 0.19 

Rock areas 

Marshes and bogs 



0.35 
102 18.06 



565 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Hennepin County from Census of 19JO 
Rural population 18,806 or 37.6 per square mile* 



Per cent of land in farms. 



78.6 



Per cent of farm land improved '^ 

Average acres per farm 

Average improved acres per farm ^^' 

Value of all farm property $34,967,221 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 'i" 

Value of all crops in 1909 $4,132,598 

Cereals (corn, oats, wheat, barley, rye) $1,341,442 

Other grains and seeds -o °'^^ 

Hay and foragef ^ $833,914 

Vegetables $i,237,i9i 

Fruits and nuts !T'"'^ 

All other crops ^489,079 

* Deducting city area there remains about 500 square miles in farms, 
t Tame grass, 61,186 tons; wild grass, 45, 521 tons. 

WRIGHT COUNTY 

Wright County is situated in the south central part of Minnesota with 
Buffalo as the county seat. Most of the county is drained to the Mis- 
sissippi by Crow River, which enters it and also forms part of its eastern 
boundary. Small lakes are scattered all over the county, and occupy about 
23 square miles of its area of 714 square miles. 

Wright County is crossed by several moraines formed by the Grants- 
burg lobe of the Keewatin ice field. The ice stood on the Crow valley, 
while the glacial drainage discharged from the moraines on the northeast 
side of the lobe to the Mississippi. Outwash aprons, or plains of sandy 
gravel are thus extensive in the northern part of the county. Smaller 
ones lie along Crow River valley, which subsequently carried an im- 
portant line of glacial drainage into the Mississippi. The outwash plains 
are covered to some extent with a loam which increases their f ertihty. 

Although this county was covered with heavy hardwood forest, it 
has nearly all been converted into farm land, there being 90.3 per cent 
of the county in farms. Of this, however, only about 60 per cent is im- 




A. WISCONSIN, OR YorXi; KED DRIFT, MORAINE NEAR STILLWATER 




B. OLD RED DRIFT MORAINE NEAR HAMPTON 



MEEKER COUNTY 93 

proved. Part of the unimproved land is in swamps, but nearly every 
farm has a few acres of wood-lot. The moraines, though having many 
small knolls, and a somewhat varied soil, ranging from clayey to gravelly, 
are developed agriculturally nearly as much as the relatively smooth till 
plains with prevailing clay loam soil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Wright County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine with clayey to mixed soil 186 26.91 

Gray drift till plain, chiefly pebbly clay loam 230 33-28 

Outwash plains of sandy gravel and sandy loam soil 140 20.26 

Swamps and bogs 135 19.52 

691 99.97 

Farm and Crop Data for Wright County from Census of igio 

Rural population 20,064 or 29 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90.3 

Per cent of farm land improved 59.5 

Average acres per farm 104.7 

Average improved acres per farm 62.3 

Value of all farm property $27,922,225 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 97.9 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3.477»s87 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $2,586,307 

Other grains and seeds $13,147 

Hay and forage* $4S6,393 

Vegetables $208,349 

Fruits and nuts $38,097 

All other crops $175,294 

• Tame grass, 53,698 tons; wild grass, 52,017 tons. 

MEEKER COUNTY 

Meeker County is located in the south central part of Minnesota, with 
Litchfield as the county seat. The drainage is almost entirely eastward 
by the two forks of Crow River to the Mississippi. A small area near 
Eden Valley, however, drains northward to Sauk River, and thence north- 
east to the Mississippi. At one time in the course of the melting of the 
Keewatin ice field, this northward line carried the drainage of a large 
part of the county, for the Crow River valley to the east of Meeker 
County was still covered by the ice. A lake several miles in width then 
occupied the low land bordering Crow River valley between Manannah 
and Kingston, and discharged northward across a broad marshy \-alley 
past the site of the village of Eden Valley. This lake deposited a cal- 
careous silt and fine sand brought into it by glacial waters from the east 
and south. At the south edge of the lake, an extensive outwash gravel 
plain, on which the villages of Litchfield and Darwin stand, was built 
by the waters escaping northward from the ice. This lake area and the 
bordering outwash and till plain lie between two large moraines which 



94 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

unite a few miles west in Kandiyohi County to form the great morainic 
system developed on the east side of the Keewatin ice field. 

The northern and earlier of the two moraines just mentioned touches 
the northwest and also the northeast corner of Meeker County but lies 
mainly in Stearns County. The southern moraine crosses the southern 
part of the county, and bears northeastward into Wright County. There 
is an extensive till plain on the southern or inner border of this moraine, 
extending from southwestern Meeker County into neighboring counties 
on the south and west. 

The moraines as well as till plains are very largely of clay loam. 
There are, however, gravelly knolls and ridges along the outer edge of 
each moraine next to the outwash plains. The sediments of the glacial 
lake above noted are of fine sand on the edge, but are a rich silt loam in 
the deeper part between Forest City and Kingston. The outwash plains, 
though underlain by gravel, have in places a loamy soil and subsoil 2 to 
4 feet deep which render them the more productive. A considerable 
part, however, has a light sandy soil. 

Meeker County stands on the border between prairie and hardwood 
forest. There were groves on the prairie parts and strips of prairie ex- 
tended back for some miles into the forest. The forest was of oak open- 
ings on the sandy soil, but heavier with mixed hardwood on the clay soils. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Meeker County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam 190 30.59 

Gray drift till plain, chiefly pebbly clay loam 260 41-87 

Outwash sand and gravel plains, sandy to loamy 70 1 1.27 

Lacustrine deposits with silt loam soil 30 4.83 

Lacustrine deposits with sandy soil 40 6.44 

Marshes and swamps 31 S-oo 

621 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Meeker County from Census of igio 

Rural population 12,826 or 20.6 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90.2 

Per cent of farm land improved 7S-S 

Average acres per farm 152.8 

Average improved acres per farm HS-S 

Value of all farm property $21,595,297 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 82.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,310,451 

Cereals (wheat, oats, corn, barley, rye) $2,731,476 

Other grains and seeds $76,401 

Hay and forage* $351,107 

Vegetables $68,656 

Fruits and nuts $i9.53i 

All other crops $63,280 

• Tame grass, 34,223 tons; wild grass, 58,252 tons. 






ii fi ^^ ^f Ji ^M ^f W S^ ^^ ^ 



jT^CTsag? ■'i^m/^:m^^::£M.(:mf2;''^:^f,:im 



A. OUTWASH PLAIN EAST OF ANOKA. DUNE SAND ON RIGHT CUT BY RAILROAD 




B. OUTWASH PLAIN OK GRAY DRIFT WEST OF WHITE BEAR 



fc-iifm^^ .tJt^^'-t^.j^ 




C. OUTWASH PLAIN WITH THICK CLAYEY COVERING NEAR GARVAIS AND VADNIS 
LAKES, NORTH OF ST. PAUL 



KANDIYOHI COUNTY 95 

KANDIYOHI COUNTY 

Kandiyohi County, of which Willmar is the county seat, has a land 
area of 8oi square miles, and an estimated additional lake area of 53 
square miles. The lakes are especially numerous in a belt running from 
northwest to southeast across the county. The drainage of the northeast 
part is eastward by Crow River to the Mississippi, and of the southwest 
part is southwestward to the Minnesota River. 

The great morainic system formed on the east side of the Keewatin 
ice sheet comes into the county from the northwest and is combined into 
a single broad morainic belt as far as Green Lake. It there forks, and 
the northern or outer member leads northeastward into Stearns County, 
while the southern member continues southeastward into Meeker County.' 
There is also a weak moraine leading from Green Lake to Atwater, which 
is separated from the large moraine south of it by a space of about 2 
miles of till plain. South of this great morainic system is a till plain ex- 
tending into Renville County, the only interruption being a narrow 
moraine less than a mile wide that runs eastward through the southwest 
township of the county south of Prinsburg. There are also a few sharp 
gravelly knolls east of Raymond. Another till plain lies between the two 
members of the great morainic system east of Green Lake. This is 
traversed by sandy strips marking lines of glacial drainage to the middle 
fork of Crow River. The north part of the county is occupied by a great 
gravel outwash plain that extends into Pope and Stearns counties. 

There is gravelly and loose-textured drift along the border of the 
great morainic system next to the gravel plain, but within 2 or 3 miles 
back the moraine becomes more clayey, though there are gravelly knolls 
here and there over it. The till plain has a rich black clay loam soil, such 
as covers the great plain along the Minnesota valley. Some of the 
marshes and peaty bogs may be easily drained, but others seem to be 
down to the level of the underground water table. The marshes and 
bogs are quite extensive in the gravel plain, and are in some cases 20 to 
40 feet below the general level of the plains. The aggregate amount of 
wet land is probably as great as the area of the lakes, or not less than 63 
square miles. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Kandiyohi County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine with gravelly or stony loam 100 J2 48 

Gray drift moraine with pebbly clay loam ig^ 22 47 

Gray drift till plain, chiefly pebbly clay loam soil [ 378 47 ig 

Gray drift outwash, sandy and gravelly loam go ^^'^^ 

Marshes and bogs ^, 'o, 

03 7.86 

Soi 100.00 



96 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Farm and Crop Data for Kandiyohi County from Census of Jgw 

Rural population 12,880 or 16 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90.4 

Per cent of farm land improved 79-8 

Average acres per farm 207. i 

Average improved acres per farm 165.2 

Value of all farm property $22,711,957 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 93-9 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,410,101 

Cereals (wheat, oats, barley, corn, rye) $2,755,099 

Other grains and seeds $i33.So8 

Hay and forage* $401,612 

Vegetables, fruits, and nuts $62,660 

All other crops $i7.492 

•Tame grass, 29,094 tons; wild grass, 80,684 tons. 

SWIFT COUNTY 

Swift County is located in southwestern Minnesota with Benson as 
the county seat. The drainage is all southward or southwestward 
through the Pomme de Terre and Chippewa rivers to the Minnesota. 

Part of the strong morainic system that was formed along the east 
side of the Keewatin ice field crosses the northeast corner of the county 
and occupies about 120 square miles. The remainder of the county is 
largely till plain, but small till ridges occur here and there in the southern 
part, and narrow moraines with strips of outwash between them cross 
the southwest corner of the county. A larger morainic belt traverses the 
northwest part of the county, and east of this is an extensive sandy out- 
wash plain. 

Some marshy land occurs in depressions in the sandy plain northwest 
of Benson, and there are small areas of wet land on the till plain and a 
few bogs in the large moraine. But the aggregate area of wet land 
scarcely reaches 20 square miles. The greater part of the county has a 
rich black clay loam soil such as characterizes the great till plain along 
the Minnesota valley. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Szvift County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam 200 27.00 

Gray drift till plain, chiefly pebbly clay loam 34° 43-88 

Outwash plains of sand and sandy loam 181 24.42 

Marshes and swamps 20 2.70 

741 100.00 

Farm and Crof Data for Swift County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 7,533 or 10.2 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms ^(>-^ 

Per cent of farm land improved 88.6 

Average acres per farm 265.9 

Average improved acres per farm 235.6 

Value of all farm property $18,206,728 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 9*'4 



CHIPPEWA COUNTY 97 

Farm and Crop Data for Swift County (Continued) 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,097,049 

Cereals (wheat, oats, corn, barley, rye) $2,701,830 

Other grains and seeds $103,850 

Hay and forage* $226,318 

Vegetables $54,332 

Fruits and nuts $4,556 

All other crops $6,161 

•Tame grass, 19,013 tons; wild grass, 36,177 tons. 

CHIPPEWA COUNTY 

Chippewa County is located on the north side of the Minnesota River 
in the southwest part of the state, with Montevideo as the county seat. 
The drainage is all southward or southwestward to the Minnesota River. 
The Minnesota valley was excavated by the river from the glacial Lake 
Agassiz to a depth of more than loo feet, and has several channels in 
the part above the mouth of the Chippewa River with island-like remnants 
of the upland between them. The river cut the valley down to the 
granite in the vicinity of Montevideo and Granite Falls. 

The county is nearly all a smooth till plain with black prairie soil and 
pebbly clay loam subsoil. There are several narrow and interrupted 
morainic ridges traversing the county in a course parallel with the Minne- 
sota, and these are in some cases bordered on the northeast by narrow 
strips of sandy outwash. The ridges are usually of clayey till with 
pebbly clay loam soil. A large part of the Minnesota valley has a stony 
to sandy loam soil. There is also some wet land in the valley, and per- 
haps two square miles of bare rock area. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Chippewa County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraines and till ridges, pebbly clay loam 80 13-52 

Till plains with black clay loam soil 414 70.05 

Sandy and gravelly outwash 20 3-38 

Stony loam and sand in Minnesota valley 50 8.46 

Swamps and marshes chiefly in valley 25 4-24 

Rock areas 2 0.34 

591 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Chippewa County from Census of igio 

Rural population 8,434 or 14 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90.3 

Per cent of farm land improved 87.8 

Average acres per farm 228.0 

Average improved acres per farm 200.0 

Value of all farm property $17,378,350 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 92.3 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,797,308 

Cereals (oats, wheat, corn, barley, rye) $2,439,238 

Other grains and seeds $53,986 

Hay and forage* $234,114 

Vegetables $47,277 

Fruits and nuts $6,762 

All other crops $15,93' 

* Tame grass, 20,679 tons; wild grass, 38,909 tons. 



98 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

LAC QUI PARLE COUNTY 

Lac qui Parle County is situated south of the Minnesota River on the 
western border of the state, with Madison as the county seat. The drain- 
age is entirely northeastward into the Minnesota River, mainly through 
Yellow Bank and Lac qui Parle rivers. 

Most of the county is a till plain with an altitude i,ooo to 1,200 feet, 
but the southwest corner is on the slope of the Coteau des Prairies and 
reaches an altitude of 1,400 feet. The Minnesota valley is cut to a depth 
of about 100 feet below the bordering till plain, and as in Chippewa 
County there are island-like strips of the till plain surrounded by chan- 
nels cut by the outlet of Lake Agassiz which made the valley of the 
Minnesota. The village of Louisburg stands on the largest of these 
island strips. The Minnesota bottoms has exposures of bare granite 
amounting to perhaps 5 square miles within the county limits. Much of 
the bottom land is stony and too wet for cultivation. 

The till plain has generally a black pebbly clay loam soil. There are 
several narrow moraines crossing it in the southwest part of the county, 
and strips of gently undulating land nearer the Minnesota which seem to 
mark later positions of the ice border. There are chains of gravel knolls 
in the western part of the county, and scattered gravel knolls in the south- 
east part. Outwash plains of sand and gravel border some of the weak 
morainic ridges in the southwest part of the county, but they comprise 
less than 5 per cent of the area. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Lac qui Parle County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly gray drift moraines, pebbly clay loam...' 50 6.33 

Clayey gray drift moraine, pebbly clay loam 160 20.25 

Till plains, black pebbly clay loam 480 60.76 

Outwash plains with sand or sandy loam soil 35 4-43 

Rock ledges in Minnesota valley 5 0.63 

Sandy and stony land in Minnesota valley 35 4.43 

Marshy land, chiefly in Minnesota valley 25 3.16 

790 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Lac qui Parle County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 10,819 or 13.7 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 9i-8 

Per cent of farm land improved 86.9 

Average acres per farm 249. i 

Average improved acres per farm 2 1 6.4 

Value of all farm property $26,217,879 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 104.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $4,150,755 

Cereals (wheat, oats, corn, barley, rye) $3,583,249 

Other grains and seeds $200,372 

Hay and forage* $278,300 

Vegetables $66,569 

Fruits and nuts $10,276 

All other crops $11,989 

•Tame grass, 32,159 tons; wild grass, 36,957 tons. 



YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY 99 

YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY 

Yellow Medicine County is south of the Minnesota River and extends 
west to the state line along the south side of Lac qui Parle County. The 
county seat, Granite Falls, is at the eastern end and takes its name from 
falls in the Minnesota River at that point. The drainage is all northeast- . 
ward into the Minnesota chiefly through Lac qui Parle and Yellow Medi- 
cine rivers. 

The greater part of the county is a till plain standing between 1,000 
and 1,200 feet, but the southwest part is on the eastern slope of the 
Coteau des Prairies and rises near the corner of the county to over 1,700 
feet. There are several moraines traversing the county in a northwest 
to southeast course, but with the exception of a bulky one in the south- 
west corner they are all slender, with a width of i to 2 miles or even less. 

Along the outer or southwest border of the moraines are channels 
that were formed by the glacial border drainage. These are now in part 
abandoned and hold marshes and bogs. Some of them, however, are 
utilized for considerable distances by the present drainage lines. The 
courses of the streams are subject to great diversion in some cases to 
find a passage through a morainic ridge. 

The moraines contain a few gravel knolls, but are otherwise of a 
clayey till with pebbly clay loam soil. The lines of border drainage above 
noted usually have a silty or sandy loam soil. The till plains which oc- 
cupy a large part of the county have a black prairie soil of slightly pebbly 
clay loam. The Minnesota valley has in places exposed granite hills, but 
much of the bottom land is sandy to stony loam with bowldery strips. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Yellow Medicine County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraines, chiefly pebbly clay loam soil 235 31.38 

Gray drift till plains, chiefly pebbly clay loam soil 439 58.61 

Border drainage channels with sandy loam and peaty soil 50 6.67 

Sandy and stony land in Minnesota valley 20 2.67 

Rock areas in Minnesota valley 5 0.67 

749 100.00 
Farm and Crop Data for Yellow Medicine County from Census of igio 
Rural population 10,825 or 14.5 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 94.2 

Per cent of farm land improved 83.9 

Average acres per farm 245-8 

Average improved acres per farm 206.3 

Value of all farm property $24,607,037 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1 9 1 o 103.9 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,525,571 

Cereals (wheat, oats, corn, barley, rye) $2,980,978 

Other grains and seeds $185,428 

Hay and forage* $272,573 

Vegetables $61,731 

Fruits and nuts $10,663 

All other crops $14,198 

* Tame grass, 28,018 tons; wild grass, 42,314 tons. 



loo SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

RENVILLE COUNTY 

Renville County is situated on the north side of the Minnesota River 
in the southwest part of the state, with Olivia as the county seat. The 
greater part of the county is drained southward to the Minnesota River, 
but the northeastern part is drained northeastward by Crow River to the 
Mississippi. The county has so few natural drainage lines that extensive 
ditching has been found necessary to carry off the surplus water. 

This county is a great prairie till plain, with only a few narrow drift 
ridges or weak moraines that are more or less interrupted. The soil is a 
rich black clay loam. In a few places it is thickly strewn with bowlders. 
Gravel knolls, which are of high value for road ballast, are scattered 
widely over the plain and strewn along the lines of the moraines. The 
plain stands mainly between i,ooo and i,ioo feet above sea level, though 
its highest points are slightly above i,ioo feet. On this upland plain, wet 
lands can largely be drained and rendered tillable at moderate expense. 
The Minnesota River falls 50 feet or from 850 feet above sea level to 800 
feet in its course along the border of the county. Its valley has numerous 
outcrops of granite rock, which in places rise to a height of 100 feet or 
more above the stream, or to within about 50 feet of the level of the 
bordering uplands. Parts of the bottom lands are wet and parts are 
sandy and stony. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Renville County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly knolls in moraines and till plains, stony loam 20 2.0s 

Gray drift ridges, pebbly clay loam no 11.25 

Gray drift till plain, black clay loam 648 63.23 

Plains with sand and sandy loam 12 1.23 

Rock outcrops in Minnesota valley 13 1.33 

Sandy and stony land in Minnesota valley 15 i-53 

Wet land in Minnesota valley 10 1.03 

Upland marshes and wet lands 150 15-33 

978 99.98 

Farm and Crop Data for Renville County from Census of ipio 

Rural population iSi794 or 16 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 94-2 

Per cent of farm land improved 87.1 

Average acres per farm 205.4 

Average improved acres per farm 178.9 

Value of all farm property $33,685,584 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 81.7 

Value of all crops in 1909 $5,370,879 

Cereals (wheat, oats, corn, barley, rye) $4,780,876 

Other grains and seeds $118,823 

Hay and forage* $349,488 

Vegetables $79,756 

Fruits and nuts $1 6,685 

All other crops $25,071 

* Tame grass, 33,400 tons; wild grass, 87,880 tons. 



SIBLEY COUNTY loi 

MCLEOD COUNTY 

McLeod County is situated about midway of the state in the fourth 
row of counties from the south, with Glencoe as the county seat. The 
drainage is nearly all northeastward to the Mississippi through Crow 
River, but the southern end drains eastward to the Minnesota. 

The county is nearly all a very fertile till plain, and most of it stands 
between i,ooo and 1,100 feet above the sea, there being remarkably little 
range in altitude. The northwest corner is strongly morainic as it em- 
braces the southern end of a spur from the great morainic system formed 
on the east side of the Keewatin ice field. This spur is at the place where 
the Grantsburg lobe branches oflf from the main or Des Moines lobe. 
Gravel knolls are scattered over the county in such a manner as to be 
accessible for road ballast in nearly every township, but the plains have 
black clayey loam with but few pebbles or bowlders. 

Marshes and peat bogs are inclosed among the morainic knolls of the 
northwest part of the county and also fringe some of the lakes. A nar- 
row strip of sandy gravel follows down the south fork of Crow River, 
which may have been a line of glacial drainage ; but aside from this no 
outwash plains or sandy glacial drainage lines were noted. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in McLeod County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam 60 12.09 

Gray drift till plain, black pebbly clay loam 370 74.60 

Gravelly knolls and ridges, stony loam 25 5.04 

Glacial gravel plains along Crow River, stony loam 15 3.03 

Marshes and bogs 26 5.24 

496 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for McLeod County from Census of igio 

Rural population 12,278 or 25 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 94.2 

Per cent of farm land improved 80. 3 

Average acres per farm 131. 8 

Average improved acres per farm 103.8 

Value of all farm property $23,120,367 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 85.3 

Value of all crops in 1 909 $2,894,083 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $2,382,431 

Other grains and seeds $33,95 1 

Hay and forage* $329,146 

Vegetables $67,102 

Fruits and nuts $13,787 

AH other crops $67,666 

•Tame grass, 33,458 tons; wild grass, 51,192 tons. 

SIBLEY COUNTY 

Sibley County lies west of the north flowing portion of Minnesota 
River, with Gaylord as its county seat. The drainage is nearly all east- 
ward to the Minnesota. A narrow strip on part of the north border is 



102 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

drained northeastward by Crow River to the Mississippi. The altitude 
of the county, outside the Minnesota valley, is remarkably uniform, there 
being scarcely lOO feet variation. The northwest part stands about 1,050 
to 1,075 f^^t, and there is a gradual descent to the southeast part, which 
is about 975 feet. The Minnesota valley is nearly 250 feet deep, the 
river being 717 feet at the south line of the county and just below 700 
feet where it leaves the county. There are, however, terraces of glacial 
gravel along it 100 to 125 feet above the stream. 

More than 90 per cent of the county, outside the river valley, is a 
smooth till plain, which was largely prairie, and has a rich black clay 
loam soil. There are weak morainic ridges in the southwest corner of 
the county, and occasional low knolls scattered widely over the county. 
The knolls and the morainic ridges contain a small amount of gravel, of 
great value for road ballast. The bottom lands and terraces of the 
Minnesota valley are generally sandy. There is a small amount of wet 
land lying below the level of the highest flood stages of the river. This 
land is rich and can be farmed except in years of exceptional floods. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Sibley County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraines and scattered drift knolls, chiefly pebbly clay loam 30 5. 11 

Till plain, black pebbly clay loam 470 80.40 

Upland swamps and wet land, largely capable of drainage, black clay loam.. 60 10.23 

Sandy bottoms and terraces of Minnesota valley 10 1.71 

Wet bottoms of Minnesota valley i S 2.56 

585 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Sibley County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 11,351 or 19.4 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 95.4 

Per cent of farm land improved 79.5 

Average acres per farm i73-9 

Average improved acres per farm 1 38.3 

Value of all farm property $22,006,868 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 67.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,117,610 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $2,678,817 

Other grains and seeds $23,384 

Hay and forage* $291,130 

Vegetables $60,302 

Fruits and nuts $12,472 

All other crops $Si>S05 

•Tame grass, 22,525 tons; wild grass, 67,183 tons. 

CARVER COUNTY 

Carver County is situated on the west side of the north flowing part 
of Minnesota River immediately southwest of Hennepin County, and 
Chaska is the county seat. The southeastern part of the county drains 
into the Minnesota River, but the northwest part is drained to the 
Mississippi River, chiefly by Crow River. 



SCOTT COUNTY 103 

This county is largely occupied by the great morainic system formed 
on the east side of the Keewatin ice field, and has a knolly surface in- 
closing numerous small lakes and peat bogs. The western end of the 
county is a till plain, a continuation of the great plain bordering the 
Minnesota valley. There are also small till plains inclosed among the 
morainic ridges. Outwash plains open into the Minnesota valley, and the 
discharge of glacial waters was thence northeastward to the Mississippi. 

The forests and lakes give a pleasing scenic effect and attractive 
setting for suburban residences. The county is traversed by several 
railroad lines leading direct to Minneapolis, and thus is likely to have in 
the near future a considerable suburban population. It is also favorably 
situated for quick marketing of produce, and much loose textured soil 
suitable for gardening. Thus far, however, it has been chiefly a grain 
and hay producing county. The till plain in the southwest part of the 
county has a rich black clay loam soil with pebbly clay loam subsoil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Carver County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraines, pebbly clay loam to gravelly loam soil 140 37.23 

Outwash plains of sandy and gravelly loam 11 2.93 

Till plains, chiefly of pebbly clay loam 180 47.87 

Marshes and bogs on uplands 20 5.33 

Sandy bottoms and terraces of Minnesota valley 15 3.59 

Wet bottoms of Minnesota valley 10 2.66 

376 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Carver County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 11,247 or 30 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 89.9 

Per cent of farm land improved 59.4 

Average acres per farm 108.6 

Average improved acres per farm 64.5 

Value of all farm property $20,370,744 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 118.0 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,264,655 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $1,571,048 

Other grains and seeds $1,717 

Hay and forage* $400,85 1 

Vegetables $88,846 

Fruits and nuts $39,518 

All other crops $162,675 

•Tame grass, 46,934 tons; wild grass, 29,890 tons. 

SCOTT COUNTY 

Scott County is situated on the east side of Minnesota River with 
Shakopee as the county seat. The drainage is northwestward to the 
Minnesota River, except a few square miles in the southeast part which 
drain eastward through Vermilion River to the Mississippi. The Minne- 
sota valley is over 200 feet in depth, the river being below 700 and the 



104 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

bluffs over 900 feet. There are only a few square miles of the county 
standing above 1,100 feet. 

The greater part of the county is strongly morainic, and is in the 
great morainic system formed on the east side of the Keewatin ice field. 
A till plain on the inner border of this morainic system occupies the 
southwest part of the county. Red drift is intermixed with the gray 
drift in notable amount in the east part of the county, and is found in 
outcrops and valley slopes beneath the gray drift clear to the western 
end of the county. The greater part of the drift, both in the moraines 
and till plains, is a clayey calcareous till with pebbly clay loam soil. There 
are, however, occasional knolls of gravel, and inclusions of gravel in the 
till which furnish suitable material for road ballast. 

The Minnesota valley has broad terraces of sandy gravel at various 
heights up to more than 100 feet above the stream. On a low terrace 
west of Savage, the soil is in places light dune or sand but from Shakopee 
prairie up to Belle Plaine prairie there is usually a loamy rich soil. Rock 
ledges are exposed, or covered very thinly with loam and gravel, over 
an area of several square miles in the vicinity of Shakopee and Merriam. 
Low bottoms, subject in part to overflow, occupy about one fourth of the 
area of the valley in this county. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Scott County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gray drift moraine, chiefly pebbly clay loam i8o 49- 1 8 

Gray drift till plain, black clay loam 72 19.66 

Glacial drainage deposits of gravel and sand, terraces on Minnesota River 60 16.39 

Low alluvial tracts along the Minnesota River 20 5.47 

Marshes and bogs on uplands 34 9-29 

366 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for Scott County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 9,885 or 27 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 88.7 

Per cent of farm land improved 64.3 

Average acres per farm 1 36.8 

Average improved acres per farm 87.9 

Value of all farm property $14,610,955 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 67.2 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,807,505 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $1,380,1 74 

Other grains and seeds $4,808 

Hay and forage* $261,776 

Vegetables $51,012 

Fruits and nuts $14,146 

All other crops $95,589 

•Tame grass, 17,148 tons; wild grass, 37,303 tons. 

DAKOTA COUNTY 

Dakota County, of which Hastings is the county seat, lies on the south 
side of the Mississippi, opposite and immediately below St. Paul. This 



DAKOTA COUNTY 105 

county was settled rapidly in pioneer days, owing to its situation along a 
navigable stream. The growth in population since 1880 has been largely 
in the cities and villages. Its surface was in part prairie and in part 
covered by a light growth of oak forest which was easily cleared. 

The county drains eastward to the Mississippi River, except a few 
square miles in the northwest end, which drains westward to the Minne- 
sota River. The preglacial course of the Mississippi, as indicated by the 
well records, was a few miles south of its present course, and its bed is 
but little more than 500 feet above sea level. The present river has a 
bed 150 to 175 feet higher, the stream being about 670 feet where it 
leaves the county. A considerable part of the county has an altitude be- 
tween 900 and 1,000 feet. The preglacial rock surface of this county, 
and that of neighboring parts of Washington, Goodhue, and Rice coun- 
ties, was very uneven, there being isolated mesa-like uplands and buttes 
standing 100 to 200 feet above the surrounding lowland. A capping of 
limestone over soft sandstone protected the sandstone wherever it es- 
caped erosion, while the unprotected sandstone was greatly broken down. 
The glacial deposits have only partially concealed the old escarpments 
of the mesas, and coated their table-like surfaces with a thin cover, ex- 
cept in the part of the county occupied by strong moraines of the red 
drift. 

The moraines of young red drift are prominent in the northwest part 
of the county in the great bend of the Mississippi opposite St. Paul and 
Minneapolis. They are overlapped by the gray drift of the Keewatin 
ice field along the western edge of the county. Extensive red drift gravel 
plains run entirely across the county from west to east, and descend from 
an altitude of 900 feet or more to about 800 feet. The valleys of the 
Vermilion and Cannon rivers are also gravelly. 

In the eastern part of the county an older red drift is extensively 
exposed, while in the southwestern part the old gray drift occupies the 
surface, except where covered with thin deposits of later drift and tra- 
versed by lines of glacial drainage from the newer drift. 

A large part of the old red drift is loose-textured and gravelly, there 
being but a small admixture of clay. It includes a sharply ridged belt 
leading southeastward from Hampton nearly to the Cannon River. But 
as a rule its surface is nearly plane. The weathering of this drift is 
markedly greater than that of the young red drift ; yet it seems to be of 
post-Kansan age, for it lies on the eroded surface of the Kansan drift, 
or old gray drift of the Minnesota reports. 

The old gray drift contains a large amount of clayey till, but it has 
been leached of calcareous material to a depth of several feet, and thus 



io6 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

differs from the young gray drift in which hmestone pebbles are preserved 
nearly to the surface. 

There are strips of loess in this county entirely isolated from the 
large loess-covered areas of southeastern Minnesota. One strip about a 
mile in average width runs from New Trier southeast to the southeast 
corner of the county. Another small loess area lies northwest of Farm- 
ington. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Dakota County 

Square miles Per cent 

Old red drift, prevailingly gravelly loam 96 16.03 

Old gray drift, prevailingly clayey loam 60 10.01 

Loess, pebbleless silt loam 26 4.34 

Wisconsin red drift, stony clay loam no 18.36 

Wisconsin red drift outwash and glacial drainage, gravelly loam with partial 

cover of silt loam 118 19.70 

Wisconsin gray drift, silty clay loam 62 10.35 

Alluvium and marshy bottoms along the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers. . 28 4.67 

Outwash and glacial drainage of Wisconsin gray drift 32 5.34 

Sandy river terraces 7 1.17 

Rock areas and very thin drift 30 S-oo 

Svifamps and bogs (outside river valleys) 30 5.00 



S99 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Dakota County from Census of i^io 

Rural population 11,249 or 18.7 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms ' 86.0 

Per cent of farm land improved 78.8 

Average acres per farm 152.5 

Average improved acres per farm 120.1 

Value of all farm property $22,986,004 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 94.9 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3>i77.70i 

Cereals (oats, corn, barley, wheat, rye) $2,142,628 

Other grains and seeds $43,948 

Hay and forage* $483,710 

Vegetables $382,403 

Fruits and nuts $49,432 

All other crops $75.S8o 

* Tame grass, 51,335 tons; wild grass, 11,047 tons. 

GOODHUE COUNTY 

Goodhue County borders the Mississippi River in southeastern Min- 
nesota, with Red Wing as the county seat. Like Dakota County it was 
settled at an early date, the settlements being at first on the gravel ter- 
races along the Mississippi and its tributaries, and soon after on the 
uplands. 

The drainage is all eastward to the Mississippi, the north part being 
drained chiefly by Cannon River, and the south part by Zumbro River. 
The uplands are gently undulating to rolling, and are of the drainage 
erosion type, for this county lies outside the limits of the young or Wis- 
consin drift, and there has been developed a broad dendritic drainage in 



GOODHUE COUNTY 107 

the old gray drift. Toward the eastern side of the county, however, the 
streams drop down into the deep preglacial drainage. 

The uplands maintain a height of about 1,100 feet clear out to the 
Mississippi in the district below Red Wing, but are somewhat lower in 
the north part of the county. The southwest part of the county rises 
to 1,200 or 1,250 feet, but as the drift there is about 100 feet thick, the 
rock surface is about the same altitude as at the blufifs of the Mississippi. 
The blufifs are very precipitous, being formed largely of Paleozoic lime- 
stone, and rise 300 to 400 feet or more above the Mississippi and the 
lower courses of its tributaries. The Mississippi below Red Wing is 
expanded into Lake Pepin with an altitude of 664 feet at low water, 
and about 680 feet at high water stages. 

Along the Mississippi and its main tributaries. Cannon River and 
Zumbro River, there are conspicuous deposits of fine gravel, laid down 
by glacial waters which escaped from the edge of the ice when it covered 
the upper parts of these valleys. Along the Mississippi the outlet of 
Lake Agassiz swept away a large part of this glacial gravel. The gravel 
was carried by the glacial waters into lowlands in and east of Red Wing 
that are outside the present course of the Mississippi but which open into 
the Mississippi at either end. The gravel filling reached about 800 feet 
above sea level in the vicinity of Red Wing, or 140 feet above Lake 
Pepin. 

The northeast part of the county was forested, but the uplands of 
the central and southwest parts were prairie. A large part of the uplands 
has a capping of loess over the old gray drift. That in the forested part 
is of brown color, while that in the prairie is a dark, nearly black silt 
loam. The brown phase is classed by the Bureau of Soils as Knox silt 
loam, while the dark phase is called Marshall silt loam.^ 

A large part of the prairie portion of Goodhue County has no capping 
of loess, and the old gray drift is at the surface. It is largely a clayey till, 
and is classed by the Bureau of Soils as Carrington loam, silt loam, and 
fine sandy loam. In a few places gravelly knolls appear, the most con- 
spicuous belt being immediately south and west of Zumbrota. These are 
classed as Miami silt loam, gravel hill phase. In some cases the slopes 
of these gravel hills have a capping of loess which throws the soil into 
the Knox series. About six square miles, however, were found to be 
gravelly at the surface. The gravel contains much limestone ; in some 
cases this has been leached out to a depth of only a few inches, while 
in other cases it has been leached to a depth of several feet, leaving only 
the cherty parts to indicate its former presence. 

1 Soil Survey of Goodhue County. Field operations of the Bureau of Soils 1913. 



io8 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

There are a few square miles of old red drift exposed in the northern 
part of the county northwest of Welch. This is looser textured and more 
stony than the old gray drift which it overlies. But the Bureau of Soils 
classes this drift in the Carrington series. 

The glacial gravel and sand of Wisconsin age is classed as Waukesha 
loam, gravelly sandy loam, etc., to correspond with the variations in 
coarseness of the soil. 

The low bottoms which are more or less subject to overflow are 
classed as Wabash silt loam, loam, or fine sandy loam, to correspond with 
variations in texture. The name Wabash silt loam, colluvial phase, is 
applied to material that is in process of transportation down small tribu- 
taries and gentle slopes into the main valleys. This often contains 
bowlders and other coarse material. 

The rough stony land embraced in the steep bluflfs is estimated by 
the Bureau of Soils to include 4.8 per cent of the county, but much of 
this is suitable for pasture, as it carries soil and disintegrating lime 
material that gives grasses a good growth. 

The loess soil of this region was for many years devoted to wheat 
growing, but of late barley has taken the place of wheat, while there has 
been a gradual change to diversified farming. 

Area of Different Soils in Goodhue County (from Bureau of Soils Report) 

Acres Per cent 

Knox silt loam (loess) 211 ,200 43-0 

Wabash silt loam (alluvium) 1 9,648 4.0 

Colluvial phase 25,344 5-2 

Marshall silt loam (loess) 36,864 7.5 

Carrington silt loam (old till) 32,448 6.6 

Fargo silt loam (old till) 24,640 5.0 

Rough stony land (rock blufls) 23,532 4.8 

Carrington loam (old till) 21,504 4.4 

Miami silt loam (over glacial gravel) 16,768 3.4 

Gravel hill phase 4,032 0.8 

Waukesha silty clay loam (alluvial) 15,360 3.1 

Carrington silty clay loam (old till) 13,696 2.8 

Waukesha fine sandy loam (alluvial) 7,552 1.5 

Waukesha loam (alluvial) 5,312 i.i 

Red Wing loamy sand (colluvial) S.184 i.r 

Carrington fine sandy loam (old till) 4,672 I.O 

Miami loamy sand (colluvial) 4,224 0.9 

Miami fine sandy loam (colluvial) 4,160 0.9 

Meadow (alluvial) 3,136 0.6 

Wabash loam (alluvial) 2,112 0.4 

Wabash fine sandy loam (alluvial) 2,048 0.4 

Knox fine sandy loam (upland sand) 2,048 0.4 

Waukesha loamy sand (alluvial) 1,600 0.3 

Sog^ clay loam (residuary) 1,472 0.3 

Waukesha gravelly sandy loam (alluvial) i ,088 0.2 

Wabash gravelly sandy loam (alluvial) 960 o.a 

Plainfield silt loam (alluvial) 256 o.i 

490,880 lOO.O 



PLATE VII 




A. SLOPE OK THE COTEAU DKS PRAIKIES NEAR CANBY. GRAY DRIFT MORAINE 




B. ERODED UPLAND IX OLD (.RAY (KANSAN) DRIFT NORTHEAST OF ZUMBROTA 




C. BROAD VALLEY CUT IN ULU GRAY (KANSANJ DRIIT WEST OF KENYON 



RICE COUNTY 109 

Farm and Crop Data for Goodhue County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 17,403 or 22.7 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 94.1 

Per cent of farm land improved 77.9 

Average acres per farm 152.0 

Average improved acres per farm 1 18.4 

Value of all farm property $32,266,663 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 78.8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,997,787 

Cereals (barley, oats, corn, wheat, rye) $2,944,258 

Other grains and seeds $196,940 

Hay and forage* $618,554 

Vegetables $100,287 

Fruits and nuts $39,2io 

All other crops $98,538 

•Tame grass 100,403 tons; wild grass 8,627 tons. 

RICE COUNTY 

Rice County, with Faribault as its county seat, is located in south- 
eastern Minnesota. The land area is 495 square miles, and there is an 
additional 21 square miles in lakes. The greater part of the county is 
drained by Cannon River northeastward to the Mississippi at Red Wing, 
but the southeast part is drained eastward by the Zumbro River. The 
northwest comer is drained northward to the Minnesota River. 

About 100 square miles along the eastern side of the county lie 
outside the limits of the Wisconsin drift, and this old drift area comprises 
most of the prairie portion of the county. It also includes the highest 
land in the county which is found in the southeast part and reaches an 
altitude of nearly 1,300 feet. The western half of the county, even 
where occupied by sharp morainic ridges, is largely between 1,000 and 
1,100 feet. The lowest land in the county is in the valley of Cannon 
River, which falls to about 900 feet at Northfield on the north edge of 
the county. 

The old drift has an undulating surface produced by broad wide open 
drainage lines. These are excavated in the drift, except in the northeast 
comer of the county, where they drop into preglacial valleys and low- 
lands. In that part of the county there are a few flat-topped mesas in 
which limestone caps the soft St. Peter sandstone. The lowlands around 
these mesas are filled with an old gravel covered by a few feet of black 
loam soil. The mesas are generally covered to a depth of a few feet by 
a clayey till. The old gray drift of the eastern part of the county is 
chiefly a pebbly clay loam, classed by the Bureau of Soils as Carrington 
loam, and Carrington silt loam.^ There are small loess-covered areas in 
it occupying about 8 square miles in the district between Northfield and 
Nerstrand. This is classed as Marshall loam by the Bureau of Soils. 

^ Soil Survey of Rice County. Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils. 1909. 



no SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Area of Different Soils in Rice County (from Bureau of Soils Report) 

Acres Per cent 

Carrington loam (chiefly moraine) 84,096 26.3 

"Erosion phase" (rough moraine) ". 39,296 12.3 

Meadow 40,832 12.8 

Carrington silt loam (chiefly old till) 38,144 i i.g 

Fargo clay loam (chiefly Wisconsin till plain) 24,832 7.8 

Fargo silt loam (chiefly Wisconsin till plain) 22,720 7.1 

Peat 16,320 s-i 

Carrington clay loam (chiefly moraine) 1 2,544 3.9 

Carrington sandy loam (chiefly moraine) 1 1,840 3.7 

Sioux sandy loam (glacial drainage) 10,752 3.4 

Sioux silt loam (glacial drainage) 7,744 2.4 

Marshall loam (loess) 4,992 1.5 

Sioux gravelly loam (glacial drainage) 2,304 0.7 

Boone sand (colluvial, residual) 2,240 0.7 

Sioux fine sandy loam (glacial drainage) i ,344 0.4 



320,000 loo.o 

Farm and Crop Data for Rice County from Census of igio 

Rural population 11,813 or 24 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 94.0 

Per cent of farm land improved 77.0 

Average acres per farm 125.2 

Average improved acres per farm 96.4 

Value of all farm property $22,753,492 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 60.2 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,914,736 

Cereals (oats, wheat, corn, barley, rye) $2,110,966 

Other grains and seeds $32,5 1 1 

Hay and forage* $463,143 

Vegetables $97,766 

Fruits and nuts $29,494 

All other crops $180,856 

* Tame grass 51,260 tons; wild grass 35,628 tons. 

A large part of Rice County is occupied by the system of moraines 
which were formed on the east side of the Keewatin ice field and run 
north to south across the county. Among the morainic ridges and knolls 
there are small till plains, but the moraines are woven together in an 
intricate manner. The soil of the moraines is classed in the Carrington 
series by the Bureau of Soils, while the till plains are chiefly Fargo silt 
loam, and Fargo clay loam, but part of the till plain is in the Carrington 
series. There are numerous peat bogs inclosed among the morainic 
knolls and ridges, and the depressions, when not peaty, have usually a 
darker colored soil than the bordering higher and better drained land. 

The young gray drift overrode the moraines of the red drift in north- 
ern Rice County but made so heavy a deposit that the red drift is com- 
pletely concealed. Red drift material, however, is found involved in the 
gray, either in masses or mixed more thoroughly. The red drift may 
in some cases have been carried farther south than its original position. 
Such seems to have been the case in an exposure noted on the Rock 



LE SUEUR COUNTY in 

Island Railroad at the north line of Cannon City Township, five miles 
north of Faribault. 

The glacial outwash and glacial drainage deposits are classed by the 
Bureau of Soils as Sioux gravelly loam and Sioux sandy loam. The silt 
covered old gravel, in the northeast part of the county, is classed as Sioux 
silt loam. 

LE SUEUR COUNTY 

Le Sueur County is situated on the east side of the north flowing part 
of the Minnesota River in southern Minnesota, with Le Sueur Center as 
the county seat. The greater part of the county drains northwestward 
into the Minnesota, but the southe'^ast corner is drained eastward by 
Cannon River to the Mississippi. 

The eastern edge of the county is strongly morainic, and a prominent 
morainic spur extends westward past Elysian about 6 miles farther than 
the rest of the moraine. Between the moraine and the Minnesota valley 
is a till plain lo to 15 miles wide with scarcely any knolls, but with nu- 
merous basins and small lakes. A line of glacial drainage heading at 
Elysian leads eastward through the moraine and down the Cannon valley. 

The morainic area as well as the till plain is largely composed of 
clayey till with a pebbly clay loam soil. But in the morainic spur near 
Elysian there is a large amount of gravelly, loose-textured drift. 

The Minnesota valley is about 250 feet deep along the border of 
this county, but part of it is filled with glacial drainage deposits of sandy 
gravel, the highest of which stand about 150 feet above the stream. 
These gravelly plains were occupied in part by prairie, but the remainder 
of the county was covered with hardwood forest. The outlet of Lake 
Agassiz removed a large part of the glacial gravel, and in places exposed 
rock ledges which appear along the valley up to a height of 50 to 75 
feet or more above the stream. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Le Sueur County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravel hills and stony loam in moraine 24 5.15 

Moraine with pebbly clay loam soil 102 21.88 

Till plain chiefly pebbly clay loam soil 280 60.08 

Gravelly outwash and glacial drainage 25 5.38 

Rock ledges in Minnesota valley 8 1.71 

Alluvial bottoms with variable soil 17 3.65 

Marshes and terrace swamps on uplands 10 2.15 

466 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Le Suetir County from Census of igio 

Rural population 11,347 or 24.3 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 87.8 

Per cent of farm land improved 62.3 

Average acres per farm 1 1 8. i 



112 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Farm and Crop Data for Le Sueur County (Continued) 

Average improved acres per farm 73.5 

Value of all farm property $20,048,441 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 80.3 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,473,797 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $2,004,730 

Other grains and seeds $3,944 

Hay and forage* $248,044 

Vegetables $69,026 

Fruits and nuts $17,761 

All other crops $130,292 

•Tame grass, 31,353 tons; wild grass, 35,664 tons. 

NICOLLET COUNTY 

Nicollet County is situated on the north side of the great bend of 
the Minnesota River in southern Minnesota, with St. Peter as its county 
seat. The drainage is all south or east to the Minnesota, but in much of 
the county natural drainage lines are poorly developed, and it has been 
necessary to extend ditches over such areas. There are several shallow 
lakes on the uplands occupying about 20 square miles, aroimd which 
is marshy land with an additional 10 square miles. Ditching has, how- 
ever, reduced the marshes and wet areas very materially. 

The county is nearly all a prairie till plain with rich black loam soil 
and pebbly clay loam subsoil. A morainic strip with two somewhat dis- 
tinct ridges or members leads across the western part of the county from 
Clear Lake past Klossner to the Minnesota valley at Cortland. The 
moraine has some knolls of gravel, but always with clay till surface. 

The Minnesota valley is -cut to a depth of about 200 feet below the 
bordering till plain. Near St. Peter, and also near Cortland, there is a 
wide remnant of a glacial gravel deposit, but generally the low bottom 
lands extend back to the blufifs. The glacial river that was the outlet 
of Lake Agassiz uncovered rock ledges in the east part of the county, 
and between Cortland and New Ulm. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Nicollet County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraines largely clayey, pebbly clay loam 40 9.03 

Till plains chiefly black clay loam 330 74-49 

Upland marshes and bogs 10 2.25 

Glacial gravel in Minnesota valley 9 2.03 

Alluvial deposits in Minnesota valley 50 11.28 

Rock outcrops in Minnesota valley 4 0.91 

433 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Nicollet County from Census of igio 

Rural population 7,929 or 17.9 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 92.S 

Per cent of farm land improved 72.3 

Average acres per farm 185.4 

Average improved acres per farm i34-i 

Value of all farm property $1 5,863,289 



BROWN COUNTY 113 

Farm and Crop Data for Nicollet County (Continued) 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 56.2 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,349,362 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $1,951,541 

Other grains and seeds $10,597 

Hay and forage* $264,330 

Vegetables $60,2 1 6 

Fruits and nuts $14,639 

All other crops $48,039 

•Tame grass, 17,610 tons; wild grass, 54,967 tons. 

BROWN COUNTY 

Brown County, of which New Ulm is the county seat, lies on the 
south side of the Minnesota valley in southern Minnesota. The drainage 
is all eastward into the Minnesota chiefly through Cottonwood and Little 
Cottonwood rivers. From an altitude of over 1,200 feet in the southwest 
corner of the county, the upland plain slopes gently northeastward to 
about 1,000 feet at the bluff of the Minnesota River. The river is in a 
valley 200 feet deep, and falls from 804 feet at the west line to about 
780 feet at the east line of the county. 

There are sharp moraines with well-defined outwash plains and lines 
of glacial drainage crossing the southwest part of the county. There is 
also a moraine traversing the central part of the county from northwest 
to southeast. But the greater part of the county is a prairie till plain 
with rich black loam soil and pebbly clay loam subsoil. Forest is con- 
fined to narrow strips along the Cottonwood and Minnesota valleys. 
Gravel knolls occur here and there on the plain, and they are numerous 
in the moraines. The gravelly outwash plains of the southwest part 
of the county are continued eastward in lines of glacial drainage which 
form a network of channels leading across from the Little Cottonwood 
to the Watonwan River. Their courses were determined by the edge 
of the ice, and not by the most rapid slope of the land. The present 
streams are more nearly adjusted to the general slope of the country. 
The Minnesota valley has small remnants of a filling with glacial gravel 
to a height of over 100 feet above the river. The city of New Ulm 
stands on one of these remnants. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Brown County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly knolls chiefly in moraines, stony loam 8 1.30 

Moraines of clayey till, pebbly clay loam 75 12.25 

Till plain with black clay loam soil 460 75- 1 6 

Outwash gravel and sand and glacial deposits 40 6.53 

Gravel terraces along Minnesota valley 2 0.32 

Alluvial bottoms of Minnesota valley 24 3.92 

Bare rock in Minnesota bottoms 3 0.49 

612 99-97 



114 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Farm and Crop Data for Brozvn County from Census of igio 

Rural population 10,010 or 16.35 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 93.3 

Per cent of farm land improved 84.2 

Average acres per farm 202.2 

Average improved acres per farm 170.3 

Value of all farm property $20,999,282 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 57.5 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,930,658 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $2,445,529 

Other grains and seeds $29,067 

Hay and forage* $330,596 

Vegetables $70,266 

Fruits and nuts $12,788 

All other crops $42,412 

• Tame grass, 20,657 tons; wild grass, 71,440 tons. 

REDWOOD COUNTY 

Redwood County is situated on the south side of the Minnesota val- 
ley in southern Minnesota, with Redwood Falls as the county seat. 
The drainage is all eastward to the Minnesota River, chiefly through 
Redwood and Cottonwood rivers. The county is largely a plain standing 
between i,ooo and 1,200 feet, but the southwest corner rises to about 
1,400 feet. The Minnesota valley is cut to a depth of 200 feet below the 
bordering plain, the river being 842 feet at the western, and 804 feet at 
the eastern limits of the county. 

There are several moraines formed along the south edge and south- 
east end of the Keewatin ice field as it was melting back across the plain 
that borders the Minnesota River. One morainic belt is in the southwest 
corner of the county ; another follows the north side of the Cottonwood, 
and another the north side of the Redwood valley. This last moraine 
splits into three narrow ridges that run southeastward through the eastern 
part of the county. There is also a later moraine in the extreme north- 
west corner of the county. The moraines are usually a clayey till, but 
in places gravel knolls become conspicuous. This is notably the case 
in the slender ridges in the east part of the county. There is a prominent 
strip of gravel knolls and ridges immediately east and south of Revere, 
which trends southwestward toward a moraine in Cottonwood County, 
instead of paralleling the course of moraines of this region. It is not, 
however, a definite gravel or esker ridge, but has much irregularity of 
form and of structure, for considerable till is included with the gravel. 

Glacial drainage seems to have been rather weak along the border 
of the moraines, and deposits of sand and gravel are scanty. It is prob- 
able that the water was ponded in places along the edge of the ice during 
the development of some of the moraines. The plains bordering the 
moraines have a rich black clay loam soil, as this was a prairie region. 



LYON COUNTY 115 

The moraines have a brown clay loam soil where most prominent, but 
the parts with a gentle slope have a darker soil. 

Rock outcrops are conspicuous along the Minnesota River and up 
Redwood valley as far as Redwood Falls. The granite is in places capped 
by cretaceous deposits in the river bluffs, but is generally swept bare 
in the valleys. It rises in places fully 100 feet above the stream, and 
at Redwood Falls attains an altitude of nearly 200 feet above the Minne- 
sota River, or 1,000 feet above sea level. The Minnesota valley has in 
this county but little good farm land because of the extensive outcrops 
of ledges, and because portions of it are subject to overflow. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Redwood County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly knolls and ridges, partly morainic, stony loam 10 1.13 

Clayey moraine, brown to black pebbly clay loam 150 i 7.03 

Border drainage with sandy deposits 24 ^-72 

Till plain, black clay loam 670 7605 

Rock outcrops along Minnesota valley 15 '-70 

Alluvial deposits along Minnesota valley 12 1.36 

881 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Redwood County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 12,760 or 14.5 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 93-S 

Per cent of farm land improved 83.2 

Average acres per farm 228.2 

Average improved acres per farm 189.8 

Value of all farm property $30,231,266 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 83.3 

Value of all crops in 1 909 $3. 745. 360 

Cereals (oats, corn, wheat, barley, rye) $3,258,279 

Other grains and seeds $91,567 

Hay and forage* $295,639 

Vegetables $78,080 

Fruits and nuts $12,897 

All other crops $8,898 

•Tame grass, 31,819 tons; wild grass, 59,116 tons. 

LYON COUNTY 

Lyon County is located in the southwest part of the state, with 
Marshall as the county seat. The drainage is all eastward into the Min- 
nesota River, mainly through Redwood and Cottonwood rivers. A few 
townships in the southwest part are on the slope of the Coteau des 
Prairies with an altitude ranging from 1,750 feet down to about 1,300 
feet. The remainder of the county stands mainly between 1,100 and 
1,300 feet, and slopes gradually northeastward. 

A prominent morainic system which was formed on the southwest 
side of the Keewatin ice field lies across the southwest part of the 
county, its several constituent members being ranged one below another 
on the slope of the Coteau des Prairies. Weaker moraines across the 



ii6 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

northeast part of the county run from northwest to southeast. One of 
them passes through Marshall and others cross the northeast comer 
of the county. All the moraines, whether weak or strong, are composed 
mainly of clayey till, and have a brown pebbly clay loam soil. The till 
plains which lie between the moraines have a black clay loam soil with 
pebbly clay loam subsoil. 

There is remarkably little outwash gravel connected with the moraines 
in this county. A few gravel knolls occur near Balaton, and others near 
Russell. There are definite border drainage channels along the south 
side of the weak moraines in the northeast part of the county, which 
are in places covered to a slight depth with sand and fine gravel. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Lyon County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly moraine, stony loam 25 3.53 

Clayey moraine, pebbly clay loam 225 3i'77 

Till plain chiefly black clay loam 390 55.09 

Outwash and sandy glacial drainage deposits 30 4.24 

Marshy abandoned channels 18 2.54 

Alluvial deposits 20 2.82 

708 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Lyon County from Census of igio 

Rural population 9,064 or 12.8 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 88.6 

Per cent of farm land improved 85.7 

Average acres per farm 238.7 

Average improved acres per farm 204.6 

Value of all farm property $23,059,304 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 9S.9 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,591,653 

Cereals (oats, corn, barley, virheat, rye) $2,132,612 

Other grains and seeds $90,961 

Hay and forage* $279,249 

Vegetables $59,925 

Fruits and nuts $7,606 

All other crops $21,300 

•Tame grass, 31,439 tons; wild grass, 32,997 tons. 

LINCOLN COUNTY 

Lincoln County is situated on the west border of the state in south- 
western Minnesota, and embraces a land area of 535 square miles, in 
addition to which there are 19 square miles in lakes. The county is 
crossed from the northwest to southeast by the crest of the Coteau des 
Prairies. The northeast slope of the Coteau is drained to the Minnesota, 
while the southwest is drained to the Big Sioux and thence to the Mis- 
souri River. 

The crest of the Coteau is a moraine that leads southeastward through 
the southwest part of the county past the south end of Lake Benton. 
This moraine has three deep notches in it within the limits of this county, 



PIPESTONE COUNTY 117 

which permit drainage from its inner border to pass through it into the 
Sioux River system. The altitude of the highest points on the moraine 
is nearly 2,000 feet, and there are several square miles standing above 
1,900 feet. The bordering till plains on each side of the moraine are 
also very elevated, much of their area in this county being above 1,800 
feet. Glacial drainage lines led from this moraine southwestward into 
South Dakota to the Big Sioux valley. 

The northeast half of Lincoln County is largely morainic, there being 
only narrow till plains between conspicuous ridges. These ridges are 
arranged one below another on the slope of the Coteau, the altitude of 
the outer ones being 1,700 to 1,800 feet, and of the inner 1,400 feet 
or less. 

The strong moraines of this county include much loose-textured 
cobbly and bowldery drift, with a stony loam soil, but there are large 
sections with clayey till and only a moderate number of stones. The till 
plains have a pebbly clay loam soil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Lincoln County 

Square miles Per cent 

Morainic drift with stony loam soil 75 14.0a 

Clayey moraine, pebbly clay loam 130 2430 

Till plains with stony loam soil 30 5.59 

Till plains with black clay loam soil 268 50.10 

Outwash plains and sandy glacial drainage 12 2.24 

Marshes and bogs , 20 3.74 

535 9999 

Farm and Crop Data for Lincoln County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 7,429 or 14 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 89.4 

Per cent of farm land improved 81.4 

Average acres per farm 234.8 

Average improved acres per farm 191. 2 

Value of all farm property $15,729,215 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 104.9 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,830,475 

Cereals (oats, barley, wheat, corn, rye) $1,333,034 

Other grains and seeds $194,437 

Hay and forage* $260,027 

Vegetables $37,860 

Fruits and nuts $2,967 

All other crops $2,1 30 

* Tame grass, 32,203 tons; wild grass, 28,538 tons. 

PIPESTONE COUNTY 

Pipestone County is situated on the west border of southwestern 
Minnesota with Pipestone as the county seat. The drainage is nearly 
all southwestward to the Big Sioux River, but the northeast corner drains 
northeastward to the Minnesota River. The crest of the Coteau des 
Prairies forms the divide and is followed by the highest moraine of the 



ii8 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

young" gray Keewatin drift across the northeast part of the county. The 
southwestern part of the county to the west and south of Pipestone City 
lies outside the Hmits of the Wisconsin drift. 

The young gray or Wisconsin drift border is not marked by a con- 
tinuous moraine in southwestern Minnesota, but has here and there a 
knolly or sHghtly ridged surface. The drift for several miles back from 
the border veneers the slopes of the eroded surface of the old gray or 
pre-Wisconsin drift. The present drainage lines follow in a general way 
the courses opened by the interglacial streams. This area as far back 
as the prominent moraine on the Coteau des Prairies is free from lakes, 
and nearly all the surface is well drained. But from the crest of the 
Coteau northeastward the later drift completely filled the interglacial 
valleys, except perhaps great depressions such as that occupied by Lake 
Benton, and its deposits are so irregular and uneven that undrained basins 
and lakes are common features. 

Outside the limits of the Wisconsin drift is a greatly eroded till area 
with broad valley bottoms and gentle valley slopes. This has a scanty 
coating of wind-drifted silt-loam, but usually the till is within a few 
inches of the surface. 

There is a thin silt deposit covering the Wisconsin or younger drift 
in places to a depth of i to 3 feet which seems to have been brought in 
from loess-covered areas on the southwest. This is somewhat more 
compact than the silt cover on the older drift, thus making a clay loam 
rather than a silt loam soil. 

There are small areas of bare quartzite in the vicinity of Pipestone 
and southward into Rock County. The quartzite, however, is generally 
covered with a few feet of drift, sufficient for productive farming. The 
bare areas are only a few acres each, and the entire exposure probably 
does not exceed 2 square miles. There is about 100 square miles in 
which the quartzite is known to underlie the drift, usually within a depth 
of a few feet. This is mainly within the older drift area, but the north 
part lies within the limits of the younger drift. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Pipestone County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine with stony loam soil 23 4.90 

Glacial drainage, gravelly loam 36 7.68 

Till plain of Wisconsin drift, clay loam 308 65.67 

Pre-Wisconsin till with silt loam soil 100 21.32 

Bare rock areas 2 0.43 

469 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Pipestone County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 5,116 or 11 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 89.3 

Per cent of farm land improved 93.5 



MURRAY COUNTY 119 

Farm and Crop Data for Pipestone County (Continued) 

Average acres per farm 254.0 

Average improved acres per farm 237.4 

Value of all farm property $17,022,735 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 133-8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,762,497 

Cereals (oats, barley, corn, wheat, rye) $ii397>i23 

Other grains and seeds $65,914 

Hay and forage* $238,190 

Vegetables $58,787 

Fruits and nuts $2,024 

All other crops $459 

* Tame grass, 39,410 tons; wild grass, 10,585 tons. 

MURRAY COUNTY 

Murray County, of which Slayton is the county seat, is located in the 
southwest part of the state, and has a land area of 704 square miles, with 
about 16 square miles additional in small lakes. The drainage of this 
county is in three different systems, the northeast part being drained 
northeastward to the Minnesota, the central and southeast parts south- 
eastward by the Des Moines River, and the southwest part southwest- 
ward to the Big Sioux River. 

The crest of the Coteau des Prairies runs through the western part 
of the county, and is followed by a strong moraine. Parts of the moraine 
rise above 1,900 feet, and much of it above 1,800 feet, but there is a gap 
in it at Chandler which is only 1,650 feet. A few square miles on the 
east side of this moraine drain westward through this gap toward the 
Big Sioux River. The drainage of the eastern slope is chiefly to the 
Des Moines River. In the southwest part of the county the moraine just 
referred to becomes double and continues so southeastward into Iowa. 
The inner member makes a sharp loop northeastward to Hadley before 
taking this southeastward course. In this loop it has much gravelly 
drift, but elsewhere is composed chiefly of clayey though rather stony 
till. The outer member and the united moraine is largely of stony char- 
acter with a few gravel knolls and a stony loam soil. There is a narrow 
strip of outwash gravel on part of the outer border. There was also a 
strong glacial drainage down Chanarambie Creek from Chandler. 

Outside the moraine just outlined a thin veneer of young Wisconsin 
drift is spread over the eroded surface of the old gray drift. It only 
partly fills the interglacial valleys cut in that drift. The soil in this area 
is a wind drifted silt loam, coating the till to a depth of only a few inches. 
The subsoil is a pebbly clay loam with fewer stones than on the moraine. 

East of the moraine that forms the crest of the Coteau is a broad 
till plain covering more than half of the county, and having a rich black 
clay loam soil. Northeast of this plain is a strong morainic system coming 
in from the northwest and sweeping around the south and east side of 



120 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Lake Shetek. It then follows the east side of Des Moines River south- 
eastward into Cottonwood County. It is separable into several ridges 
in the east part of the county. The general elevation of this moraine is 
about 300 feet lower than the crest of the Coteau, being between 1,500 
and 1,600 feet above sea level. The moraine contains much stony drift 
all along its course in this county with occasional gravelly knolls. There 
was a weak outwash from the moraine into the Des Moines valley. 

Another till plain several miles in width crosses the northeast part 
of the county. This has a rich black clay loam soil. Northeast of it, 
in the extreme northeast corner of the county, is another morainic sys- 
tem composed of several narrow ridges separated by swales or narrow 
plains. This moraine is less stony than the others and has a pebbly clay 
loam soil, while the soil in the swales is a black clay loam. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Murray County 

Square miles Per cent 

Loose-textured moraine, gravelly to sandy loam 125 17-75 

Clayey moraine with pebbly clay loam soil 60 8.52 

Till plain with stony loam soil 30 4.26 

Till plain with black clay loam soil 410 58.24 

Till plain with silt loam soil, west slope of Coteau 44 6.25 

Sandy and gravelly outwash and glacial drainage 20 2.84 

Marshes and bogs 15 2.13 

704 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Murray County from Census of igio 

Rural population 8,741 or 12.4 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 89.0 

Per cent of farm land improved 88.7 

Average acres per farm 244-5 

Average improved acres per farm 216.9 

Value of all farm property $23,455,837 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 88.9 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,297,548 

Cereals (oats, com, barley, wheat, rye) $1,760,449 

Other grains and seeds $147,930 

Hay and forage* $309,552 

Vegetables $69,949 

Fruits and nuts $6,792 

All other crops $2,876 

•Tame grass, 44.654 tons; wild grass, 33,318 tons. 

COTTONWOOD COUNTY 

Cottonwood County is located in southwestern Minnesota with Win- 
dom as the county seat. About 200 square miles in the southwest part 
of the county is drained southward by Des Moines River. The remainder 
of the county is drained northeastward to the Minnesota River. 

A quartzite ridge standing between 1,200 and 1,400 feet above sea 
level crosses its northeast part, and has numerous small exposures of 
bare rock. Elsewhere the county is heavily covered with glacial deposits. 



WATONWAN COUNTY 121 

There are several moraines crossing the county from northwest to 
southeast. Narrow strips of gravelly and sandy outwash follow the outer 
border of moraines in the southwest part of the county, while the line 
of glacial drainage follows down the Des Moines valley across Jackson 
County into Iowa. The moraines include occasional clusters of sharp 
gravelly knolls, but they are mainly of clayey till with a rich pebbly clay 
loam soil. In the north part of the county, in T. 108, R. 37W., there is 
a conspicuous belt of gravelly knolls running from Section 9 to Section 
13, a distance of about 4 miles. The trend of this gravelly belt is parallel 
with the neighboring moraines both north and south of it, but it does 
not connect with a definite moraine, there being a till plain all around it. 

The till plains, which occupy more than half the surface of the 
county, have a rich soil of dark color with a pebbly clay loam subsoil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Cottonwood County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly knolls and coarse drift, stony loam 20 3.12 

Clayey moraine with pebbly clay loam soil 14s 22.65 

Sandy and gravelly outwash and glacial drainage 25 3.91 

Till plain chiefly pebbly clay loam 544 69.37 

Bogs and marshes C 0.94 



640 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for Cottonvuood County from Census of ic^io 

Rural population 8,880 or 14 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90.7 

Per cent of farm land improved 91.2 

Average acres per farm 235.1 

Average improved acres per farm 214.3 

Value of all farm property $21,613,731 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 90.8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,423,676 

Cereals (oats, corn, barley, wheat, rye) $1,960,152 

Other grains and seeds $'37,317 

Hay and forage* $249,67 1 

Vegetables $54,993 

Fruits and nuts $14,931 

All other crops $7,612 

"Tame grass, 31,625 tons; wild grass, 43,956 tons. 

WATONWAN COUNTY 

Watonwan County is situated in the southern part of the state, with 
St. James as the county seat. The county is drained to the Minnesota 
River, almost entirely by Watonwan River and its tributaries. The 
altitude is nearly all between i,ooo and 1,200 feet, but the southwest 
corner reaches about 1,300 feet, and part of Watonwan valley is below 
1,000 feet. 

Several weak moraines cross the county from northwest to southeast. 
They are rather diffuse knolly strips with flat areas among the knolls. 
They are composed largely of clayey till but there are occasional gravelly 
knolls. 



122 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

The greater part of the county is a till plain with a rich black clay 
loam soil. There is, however, an area of about 30 square miles immedi- 
ately northeast of St. James in which the soil is sandy. 

Border drainage channels, lying just outside a moraine in the north- 
west part of the county have sandy and somewhat marshy surface. They 
are not so well developed in the south part of the county. There may 
have been a ponding of water there along the border of the ice. Such 
ponding is suggested by the presence of a general coating of silt a few 
inches in depth over the pebbly till immediately outside the moraines. 
The marsh lands of the county are chiefly along the lines of border 
drainage. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Watonwan County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly knolls and stony parts of moraines, stony loam lo 2.30 

Clayey moraine with pebbly clay loam soil 90 20.74 

Sandy outwash and glacial drainage, sandy loam 20 4.61 

Till plains with thin sandy coating 30 6.91 

Till plains with clay loam soil 270 62.21 

Swamps and bogs 14 3.22 



434 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for Watonwan County from Census of igio 

Rural population 7,13s or 16.4 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90.6 

Per cent of farm land improved 89.7 

Average acres per farm 198-3 

Average improved acres per farm 1 78.0 

Value of all farm property $16,300,220 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 70.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,901,576 

Cereals (oats, com, wheat, barley, rye) $1,528,960 

Other grains and seeds $32,144 

Hay and forage* $272,91 1 

Vegetables $4i>909 

Fruits and nuts $13,197 

All other crops $i2>375 

•Tame grass, 30,397 tons; wild grass, 38,534 tons. 

BLUE EARTH COUNTY 

Blue Earth County is located in the southern part of the state south 
of the big bend of Minnesota River, and Mankato is the county seat. 
The drainage is all northward into the Minnesota, and the lower courses 
of several streams which converge toward the Minnesota at Mankato 
have deep valleys which have been utilized by certain railway lines in 
rising from the Minnesota valley to the upland plain. The greater part 
of the county is a plain standing between i.ooo and i,ioo feet above sea 
level. The immediate bluffs of the Minnesota are 975 to 1,000 feet, but 
the river is only 756 feet at Mankato. 



BLUE EARTH COUNTY 123 

In the northwest part of the county along and north of the Watonwan 
River there is a morainic belt with two more or less distinct ridges or 
members. Its soil is classed as Marshall loam and Marshall fine sandy- 
loam in the report on that county by the U. S. Bureau of Soils.^ Asso- 
ciated with this moraine are sandy deposits that have been distributed in 
part by the wind from the glacial outwash. The outwash seems to have 
been sand. There was probably more or less ponding of the waters in 
the vicinity of the great bend of the Minnesota at the time the moraine 
was forming, as the Minnesota valley below there had not yet been 
deeply excavated. 

The greater part of the county is a plain with a clay loam to silt loam 
soil, classed by the Bureau of Soils as Marshall clay loam and Marshall 
silt loam. The clay loam is in parts of the county where the till is prac- 
tically at the surface. The silt loam is where it has a thin coating of 
nearly pebbleless silt. Very flat parts of the till plain, whether covered 
with silt or not, usually have a black soil, and this is classed as Fargo 
clay or Fargo clay loam. The silt which covers the till is seldom more 
than 2 or 3 feet in thickness, and seems to have been laid down, as already 
noted, in the ponded waters which occupied the plain for a brief time 
during the opening of the Minnesota valley. These waters appear to 
have found outlet for a short time northeastward past Elysian to Cannon 
River. The duration of the ponded condition was so brief, however, 
that no definite shore lines appear to have been developed. 

There are sharp gravel knolls in the south part of the county in two 
small groups. One group is 2 to 3 miles northeast of Amboy, and another 
about 5 miles west of that village. These knolls rise 50 to 75 feet above 
the level of the bordering plain and exceed 1,100 feet above sea level. 
In the extreme northeast comer of the county are also gravelly hills 
which rise above 1,100 feet. 

Area of Different Soils in Blue Earth County (from Report of Bureau of Soils, 1906) 

Acres Per cent 

Marshall clay loam (pebbly clayey till plain) 185,152 38.7 

Marshall silt loam (till with thin silt cover) 128,704 26.9 

Fargo clay (flat silt covered till) 27,968 S-S 

Fargo clay loam (flat silt covered till) 23,936 5.0 

Upland meadows 1 9,264 4.0 

Marshall fine sand (partly dune sand) 15,872 3.3 

Wabash fine sandy loam (alluvial) 14,528 3.0 

Marshall fine sandy loam (includes much of moraine) 13.824 2.9 

Wabash silt loam (alluvial) 13,312 2.8 

Marshall loam (chiefly moraine) 8,768 1.8 

Fargo fine sandy loam (partly low areas in moraines) 7,680 1.6 

Peat 7,680 1.6 

Mankato sand (glacial drainage) 4,032 0.9 

• Soil Survey of Blue Earth County. Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils 1906. 



124 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Area of Different Soils in Blue Earth County (Continued) 

Judson loam (alluvial cones, etc.) 3.968 0.8 

Mankato sandy loam (on rock ledges) 2,816 0.6 

Mankato loam (on rock ledges) 1,600 0.3 

479,104 100. o 

Farm and Crop Data for Blue Earth County from Census of igio 

Rural population 15,076 or 20 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 9^0 

Per cent of farm land improved 80.0 

Average acres per farm 1 52.6 

Average improved acres per farm 122.0 

Value of all farm property $32,619,319 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 48.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,974,042 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $3,225,658 

Other grains and seeds $22,694 

Hay and forage* $441,325 

Vegetables •• .. $139,904 

Fruits and nuts $49>003 

All other crops $95,458 

"Tame grass, 58,960 tons; wild grass, 55,309 tons. 

WASECA COUNTY 

Waseca County is located in the southern part of the state, with 
Waseca as the county seat. Nearly all the county is drained westward 
by Le Sueur River to the Minnesota; but a few square miles on the 
north edge are tributary to Cannon River which drains eastward to the 
Mississippi. 

A strong moraine runs from north to south through the eastern part 
of the county, but the remainder is a till plain. The moraine contains 
occasional gravel knolls but is mainly a clayey till. The till plain has a 
black clay loam soil with pebbly clay loam subsoil. The lower part of 
this plain has a coating of silt that seems referable to ponded glacial 
waters. These appear to have found outlet northeastward past Elysian 
to Cannon River. There is a well defined channel connecting Lake Ely- 
sian with the Cannon River drainage in southern Le Sueur County. The 
present outlet of Lake Elysian is in the opposite direction and leads to 
Le Sueur River and the Minnesota. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Waseca County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraine chiefly clayey till, pebbly clay loam 121 36.56 

Till plain, black clay loam slightly pebbly 200 60.42 

Marshes and bogs 10 3.02 

331 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Waseca County from Census of ipio 

Rural population 8,554 or 20 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 92.9 

Per cent of farm land improved 80.6 

Average acres per farm 163.6 



STEELE COUNTY 125 

Farm and Crop Data for Waseca County (Continued) 

Average improved acres per farm 13 1.8 

Value of all farm property $17,289,607 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 19:0 38.3 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,158,781 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $1,734,609 

Other grains and seeds $23,871 

Hay and forage* ' $290,89 1 

Vegetables $56,627 

Fruits and nuts $15,224 

All other crops $37,559 

•Tame grass, 26,340 tons; wild grass, 53,617 tons. 

STEELE COUNTY 

Steele County is located in southern Minnesota with Owatonna as 
the county seat. The drainage is nearly all northward through Straight 
River to Cannon River and thence to the Mississippi. A few square 
miles on the western edge drain westward to the Minnesota River. A 
few square miles on the eastern edge drain eastward by branches of the 
Zumbro to the Mississippi. The extreme southeast part drains to the 
Cedar River and thence southward through Iowa to the Mississippi. 

The county is traversed by moraines trending north to south which 
were formed on the eastern side of the Keewatin ice field. There are 
small outwash gravel plains along the eastern or outer border of each 
moraine. There are also narrow strips of till plain between the moraines. 
Marshes of considerable extent occur on outwash plains in the southern 
part of the county, and on till plains in the northern part. Their original 
extent has, however, been somewhat reduced by ditching. 

The moraines are composed largely of clayey till, but a prominent 
moraine in the southeast part of the county contains considerable gravel. 
The outwash and glacial drainage deposits are generally a rather light 
sandy gravel. The till plains have a rich black clay loam soil with pebbly 
clay loam subsoil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Steele County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly and stony moraine, stony loam 12 2.78 

Clayey moraine, pebbly clay loam 144 33.41 

Outwash and glacial drainage, sandy loam 36 8.35 

Till plain, black clay loam 219 50.81 

Marshes 20 4.64 



431 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Steele County from Census of igio 

Rural population 9,373 or 21.7 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 95.2 

Per cent of farm land improved 85.8 

Average acres per farm 143.9 

Average improved acres per farm 123.6 

Value of all farm property $19,032,988 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 46.8 



126 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Farm and Crop Data for Steele County (Continued) 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,548,707 

Cereals (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye) $1,61 1,384 

Other grains and seeds $26,310 

Hay and forage* $404,707 

Vegetables $74,575 

Fruits and nuts $ 18,895 

All other crops $412,836 

•Tame grass, 37,286 tons; wild grass, 48,647 tons. 

DODGE COUNTY 

Dodge County is situated in the southeast part of the state with Man- 
torville as the county seat. The drainage of nearly all of the county is 
eastward by branches of Root and Zumbro rivers to the Mississippi, but 
the southwest part is drained southward by Cedar River through Iowa. 

The eastern edge of the young Wisconsin drift lies near the west 
border of the county. It is marked by a chain of low knolls and very 
thin deposits of young till. The knolls are in some cases gravelly, but 
clayey till prevails. 

The pre-Wisconsin or old gray drift was originally a till plain, and 
in the western part of the county the plain is still well preserved, but in 
the eastern part it has become greatly eroded, and the surface now is 
occupied by broad, shallow valleys with gentle slopes. There are a few 
gpravelly knolls, but chiefly in the southeast part. Gravel is also found 
along the Cedar valley in the southwest part, but there the surface is 
nearly plane. 

Small areas in the northeast part of the county are covered with 
loess to a depth of several feet. The loess is in spur-like extensions west- 
ward from the main loess area in Olmsted County. 

In the beds of the shallow valleys, bowlders are in places very numer- 
ous, as if concentrated by erosion. They are rare on divides, or on the 
remnants of the original plain. 

The soil on the flat divides and level parts of the upland plain is gen- 
erally a heavy black clay loam, while on the slopes it is looser textured 
with a larger admixture of pebbly material. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Dodge County 

Square miles Per cent 

Pre-Wisconsin till, chiefly pebbly clay loam 3S0 79-54 

Pre-Wisconsin gravel, gravelly loam 8 i.8a 

Loess 33 7.50 

Wisconsin till, chiefly clay loam 32 7.27 

Wisconsin glacial drainage, gravelly loam 12 2.73 

Marshes 5 1.13 

440 99.99 



OLMSTED COUNTY 127 

Farm and Crop Data for Dodge County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 8,350 or 19 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 93.0 

Per cent of farm land improved 86.5 

Average acres per farm 165.0 

Average improved acres per farm 142.8 

Value of all farm property $17,416,051 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 80.5 

Value of all crops in 1909 $1,830,210 

Cereals (barley, oats, corn, wheat, rye) $1,175,703 

Other grains and seeds $1 73,979 

Hay and forage* $363,432 

Vegetables $56,298 

Fruits and nuts $15, 799 

All other crops $44,999 

•Tame grass, 62,826 tons; wild grass, 8,079 tons. 

OLMSTED COUNTY 

Olmsted County, of which Rochester is the county seat, is located in 
the southeast part of the state. The drainage of the eastern part of the 
county is eastward by Whitewater River; of the central and northwest 
parts northeastward by the Zumbro River ; and of the southern part east- 
ward by Root River to the Mississippi. The divides separating these 
three river systems rise in places slightly above 1,300 feet, and the greater 
part of the county is between 1,200 and 1,300 feet. The valleys are cut 
to a much lower level, and the Zumbro River falls below 900 feet at the 
north edge of the county. The principal streams are bordered by prom- 
inent rock bluffs, but the uplands are gently undulating. The cover of 
drift is generally thin. There are many sink holes in the limestone in 
the southern part of the county. 

The drift is all of pre-Wisconsin age and has suffered considerable 
leaching and weathering. It is generally a stiff clayey till which becomes 
calcareous below the leached part at a depth of 4 to 6 feet. 

Large gravel knolls occur in the line of an old valley in southern Oro- 
noko Township, and there are smaller ones here and there in the central 
and western part of the county, and very rarely in the eastern part. 
Most of the drift in the valleys and lowlands is loose-textured, both in 
the low bottoms and on terraces. 

Loess deposits form a coating widely over the till in the northeast 
quarter of the county and in several of the southern townships, but in 
the remainder of the county it is in isolated strips. A belt of land 
several miles wide running eastward from Rochester into Winona County 
is free from loess, — the land both to the north and south of it being 
widely loess covered. 



128 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Olmsted County 

Square miles Per cent 

Old till, pebbly clay loam 250 37-54 

Old gravel knolls, stony loam 20 3.00 

Loess 320 48.03 

Valley terraces and bottoms, gravelly or sandy loam 60 9.01 

Rough stony land in bluffs 16 2.40 

666 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Olmsted County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 12,381 or 19 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 92.3 

Per cent of farm land improved 80.3 

Average acres per farm 1 70-4 

Average improved acres per farm 1 36.9 

Value of all farm property $27,137,633 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 44.1 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,994,191 

Cereals (barley, oats, corn, wrheat, rye) $2,009,379 

Other grains and seeds $172,437 

Hay and forage* $493,623 

Vegetables $"5,557 

Fruits and nuts $29,894 

All other crops $81,301 

•Tame grass, 77,591 tons; wild grass, 5.478 tons. 

WABASHA COUNTY 

Wabasha County, with Wabasha as the county seat, borders the Missis- 
sippi in southeastern Minnesota. The drainage is all to the Mississippi 
and chiefly through Zumbro River. The highest altitude of the uplands 
is remarkably uniform, the dividing ridges being between i,ioo and 1,200 
feet above sea level over nearly all the county. The immediate blufifs 
of the Mississippi are generally over 1,100 feet, or fully 450 feet above 
the stream, which is 664 feet above sea level at Lake Pepin and about 
650 feet where it leaves the county. 

Over much of the uplands there is a mere trace of drift with scat- 
tered pebbles and bowlders, but in places it reaches 40 feet or more. 
Leaching ordinarily extends to a depth of at least 6 feet, below which 
the till is somewhat calcareous. 

There are knolls and drift ridges on the uplands in the northwest 
corner of the county a few miles southwest of Lake City. These are 
partly of gravel but contain much till. The highest ones rise 50 to 75 
feet above the bordering plains, but the usual height is 20 to 30 feet. 
They may mark an old ice border, the ice being on the southwest side 
of the belt, but it is not traceable for more than 10 miles. 

The uplands of Wabasha County are covered with loess and it ex- 
tends down on the slopes of the main valleys nearly to the streams where 
these slopes are gentle, but in many cases the valleys have precipitous 
rock bluffs. 



WINONA COUNTY 129 

The valley bottoms, even of the small tributaries of the Mississippi, 
are broad and have a rich soil. The small tributaries carry a slack water 
filling of silt formed during the filling up or aggradation of the Missis- 
sippi by glacial drainage deposits, which reached a height of more than 
100 feet above the present Mississippi, or to 775 to 800 feet above sea 
level. The filling along the Mississippi is a sandy gravel with only a 
slight cover of silt or loam. There is a similar filling along the Zumbro 
and its several branches. It is now preserved in narrow terraces along 
the valley borders of the Mississippi. 

The early settlements were on the gravel terraces along the rivers, but 
soon were extended into the interior as the forests were largely oak 
openings easily cleared, and the southwest part of the county was prairie. 
The river transportation, which was the sole line in pioneer days, and 
later supplanted to some extent by railway lines, is still of considerable 
importance. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Wabasha County 

Square miles Per cent 

Ridges and knolls of pre-Wisconsin drift, stony loam 10 i.8s 

Loess covered uplands and slopes 380 70.24 

Rough stony land in rock bluffs 46 8.50 

Bottom land and terraces of small tributaries, silt loam soil 13 2.77 

Gravel and sand deposits of Mississippi and Zumbro valleys, sandy to 

gravelly loam 65 12.01 

Wet alluvial lands chiefly along Mississippi 25 4.62 

541 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for Wabasha County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 9,448 or 17.5 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 92.7 

Per cent of farm land improved 71-6 

Average acres per farm 179-6 

Average improved acres per farm 128. s 

Value of all farm property $19,702,340 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 63.1 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,736,693 

Cereals (barley, oats, corn, wheat, rye) $1,991,640 

Other grains and seeds $96,940 

Hay and forage* $343,904 

Vegetables $138,553 

Fruits and nuts $30,019 

All other crops $135,636 

* Tame grass, 53,890 tons; wild grass, 5,032 tons. 

WINONA COUNTY 

Winona County, of which Winona is the county seat, borders the 
Mississippi River in southeastern Minnesota. The entire county is 
drained northeastward or eastward into the Mississippi, much of it by 
short tributaries heading within the county. The uplands stand 1,200 to 



130 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

1,300 feet above sea level, the immediate bluffs of the Mississippi being 
generally above 1,200 feet. 

There is very little glacial material in the covinty, yet the presence of 
foreign pebbles and occasional bowlders on the uplands indicates that 
glaciation once extended over nearly all the coimty, there being only a 
few square miles in the southeast part in which drift pebbles have not 
been noted. 

The uplands are covered by loess, except a narrow strip that extends 
from St. Charles eastward past Utica and thence southeast to Fremont. 
The part between Utica and Fremont has a light sandy soil from the 
breaking down of the sandstone formation which underlies it. To the 
west of Utica the soil is more clayey, being derived to some extent from 
the disintegration of limestone. In the loess-covered portion there is 
generally a reddish brown residuary clay between the rock and the loess. 
The glacial pebbles and bowlders are often imbedded in this residuary 
clay, which was evidently disturbed to some extent by the overriding ice. 

The valleys are often bordered by precipitous rock bluflFs, but even 
the small tributaries have wide bottom lands with a fertile soil. The 
Mississippi valley had been filled by sand and gravel to a level more than 
100 feet above the present stream, and the tributaries were graded to a 
corresponding height. The glacial river which flowed from the outlet 
of Lake Agassiz removed much of the filling from the Mississippi valley, 
but in the tributaries it is still present in large amount. 

At the time of settlement, the greater part of the county had a some- 
what open forest which was easily cleared, and the southwest part was 
prairie. Farms were therefore rapidly developed on the uplands as well 
as in the Mississippi bottoms. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Winona County 

Square miles Per cent 

Upland without loess, soil with underlying rock 27 4.24 

Loess covered uplands and slopes 500 78.45 

Rough stony land in river bluffs 40 6.28 

Gravel and sand deposits of the Mississippi valley 20 3.14 

Low alluvial flats of the Mississippi valley 15 2.3s 

Alluvial and colluvial material in tributary valleys 35 5.49 

637 99-99 

Farm and Crop Data for Winona County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 12,070 or 19 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 9i-8 

Per cent of farm land improved 63.5 

Average acres per farm 1 74-8 

Average improved acres per farm iii.o 

Value of all farm property $22,718,884 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 58.1 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,712,087 



HOUSTON COUNTY 131 

Farm and Crop Data for Winona County (Continued) 

Cereals (barley, oats, corn, wheat, rye) $i.90S.936 

Other grains and seeds $69,871 

Hay and forage* $437,321 

Vegetables $140,143 

Fruits and nuts $43,060 

All other crops $ii5>756 

• Tame grass, 70,052 tons; wild grass, 1,473 tons. 

HOUSTON COUNTY 

Houston County is the southwest comer county of Minnesota, with 
Caledonia as the county seat. The drainage is eastward into the Missis- 
sippi, more than half of it being through Root River. The southern 
edge of the county drains to Upper Iowa River. Much of the upland 
stands between i,ioo and 1,200 feet above sea level, and maintains a 
height of 1,100 feet to the brow of the Mississippi bluff. A ridge south- 
west of Caledonia rises slightly above 1,300 feet. The erosion is broad 
along many of the valleys, and bottom lands are extensive. The break- 
ing down of the upland is so great that it is preserved only in narrow 
strips between drainage lines. There are broad rock shelves at various 
levels on the slopes. 

The western part of the county bears evidence of glaciation in the 
occurrence of bowlders and small pebbles of foreign rocks ; but there is 
little or no till preserved, and the topography is essentially the same as 
in the driftless area. 

Loess covers the uplands except on a few sharp ridges and knobs, — 
the high ridge southwest of Caledonia being nearly free from it. It is 
present on gentle slopes, and on the rock shelves bordering the valleys. 
It rests on a very gummy residuary clay, formed from the decomposi- 
tion of the limestone, but is itself porous and highly productive. 

The Mississippi valley had been filled to a height of about 100 feet 
above the present stream by sand and gravel, but at the last or Wiscon- 
sin glacial stage this filling was removed largely by the glacial river from 
Lake Agassiz. Small tributary valleys silted up to correspond with the 
filling on the Mississippi. The alluvial deposits of Root River have a 
gentle down stream slope and are of fine sand. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Houston County 

Square miles Per cent 

Loess 250 43-S6 

Bare slopes with residuary sand and clay 150 26.33 

Rough stony land in bluffs 35 6.14 

Valley filling, sandy gravelly loam 103 18.07 

Wet Mississippi bottoms 32 5.60 

S70 99-99 



132 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Farm and Crop Data for Houston County from Census of igio 

Rural population 10,472 or 18.4 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 89.7 

Per cent of farm land improved 53.2 

Average acres per farm 171. i 

Average improved acres per farm 91.0 

Value of all farm property $16,836,250 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 69.3 

Value of all crops in 1909 $I.979.5I3 

Cereals (corn, oats, barley, wheat, rye) $1,291,525 

Other grains and seeds $27,905 

Hay and forage* $426,089 

Vegetables $76,067 

Fruits and nuts $27,261 

All other crops $130,666 

* Tame grass, 63,514 tons; wild grass, 2,303 tons. 

FILLMORE COUNTY 

Fillmore County is the second from the Mississippi on the southern 
border of the state, with Preston as its county seat. The drainage of 
nearly all the county is eastward through Root River to the Mississippi, 
but a few square miles on the southern edge drain southward to the upper 
Iowa River which enters the Mississippi just south of the state line. The 
valleys are shallow in the southwest part of the county with bluflfs of 
glacial material ; but elsewhere they are cut deeply into hard rock forma- 
tions and usually have steep bluflFs. There are broad rock shelves along 
the valley sides which greatly widen out the space between uplands on 
opposite sides of streams. Only narrow strips come up to the height 
of the upland plain. The remnants of this upland plain stand 1,300 to 
1,375 feet above sea level in the western and southern part of the county, 
and but little below 1,300 feet in the remainder. The valleys in the east 
part are very deep, and Root River falls to 712 feet at the east line of 
the county. 

Although the entire county has been glaciated it is only along the 
western edge of the county that thick deposits of glacial drift occur, there 
being in the remainder of the county only scattered bowlders and pebbles 
and an occasional small and thin deposit of till or gravel. The remaining 
deposits in the southwest part of the county are sufficient to fill up pre- 
glacial valleys 150 to 200 feet deep and make a thin coating on the pre- 
glacial divides. This heavy drift contains a blue calcareous till, but its 
surface is leached of limestone to a depth of several feet, and the till is 
of yellow color for about 15 feet. It is generally compact and clayey but 
has a rich clay loam soil. 

In places, beds of quartz pebbles, much older than the glacial deposits, 
cover the limestone and form a conspicuous element in the soil. They 
are abundant in the vicinity of Granger and of Ostrander, and northward 
along the western edge of the county on preglacial divides. 



PLATE VIII 




■l. L0KSS-C0VKRKI1 URIITLKSS AREA NKAR CAI.F.DOXIA 




B. \Al.l,l-.\> liiilvliKKKD BY LIMESTONE TABLELANDS NEAR HAMPTON 



MOWER COUNTY 133 

The uplands are loess-covered, except in the western end of the 
county, and have a rich silt loam soil. The loess is usually 10 to 15 feet 
thick and is present on rock shelves and gentle valley slopes as well as 
on high uplands. Much of the area of thick drift in the southwest part 
of the country is free from loess, and so is part of the thin drift area 
to the east. 

The valleys are much narrower in this county than in Houston, being 
nearer the heads of the preglacial drainage lines. Terraces of sand and 
gravel are present along them. 

This county has been about as fully populated as at present for nearly 
fifty years, the population in 1870 being only 800 less than that of 1910. 
The rich loess soil with originally a light growth of oak forest has been 
easily converted into farm land. The water power along Root River 
was also early made use of for flour mills. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Fillmore County 

Square miles Per cent 

Old drift, largely pebbly clay loam 172 19.81 

Loess covered uplands and slopes 480 55-30 

Rough stony land in rock bluffs 52 6.00 

Bare slopes with residuary sand and clay and scattered drift pebbles 100 11.52 

Valley bottoms with variable soil 64 7.37 

868 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Fillmore County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 17,784 or 20.5 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 93-4 

Per cent of farm land improved 75-4 

Average acres per farm... 16 1.5 

Average improved acres per farm 121. 8 

Value of all farm property $36,250,145 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 78.1 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,926,257 

Cereals (oats, corn, barley, wheat, rye) $2,665,502 

Other grains and seeds $304,237 

Hay and forage* $659,683 

Vegetables $101,569 

Fruits and nuts $45,041 

All other crops $150,525 

* Tame grass, 109,257 tons; wild grass, 3,389 tons. 

MOWER COUNTY 

Mower County, of which Austin is the county seat, is located on the 
southern border of the state, the third county from the Mississippi. The 
drainage of the west end of the county is southward by Cedar River 
into Iowa. The southeast part embraces the headwaters of upper Iowa 
River, whose course otherwise is in Iowa. The remainder of the county 
is drained eastward by Root River directly to the Mississippi. The 
divide between the Root River drainage and that of the Cedar and 



134 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

Upper Iowa rivers embraces the highest land in southeastern Minnesota, 
its altitude being 1,350 to 1,420 feet above sea level. The altitude de- 
clines westward to only 1,200 to 1,250 feet along the border of Cedar 
River. But eastward an altitude of more than 1,300 feet is maintained 
to the eastern limits of the county. 

The drift deposits are thick along the high divide just mentioned, the 
rock surface there being only up to about 1,300 feet above sea level. In 
the southeastern part of the county the rock surface reaches fully 1,350 
feet. It is about 1,200 feet in the western part of the county. In the 
eastern part, sink holes in limestone abound, but in most of the county 
the drift deposits are so thick that such direct underground drainage is 
blocked and even preglacial valleys are completely filled. 

From Cedar River eastward the drift is pre-Wisconsin and chiefly a 
compact clayey till with pebbly clay loam soil. Its surface has been 
leached of limestone pebbles to a depth of 4 to 6 feet. This drift has in 
places strips of gravel along the streams, which in some cases appear 
to have been exposed by the removal of the overlying till, for wells show 
the gravel to extend back beneath the till on the slopes and uplands. In 
a few places quartz pebbles derived from preglacial gravel beds form a 
notable constituent of the drift. This is especially the case in the south- 
ern and eastern parts of the coimty. 

The latest or Wisconsin drift has its eastern limits along the western 
side of the county. In places a weak moraine marks the limits, but along 
much of the border there is merely a thin deposit of this young drift. 
There was a weak outwash into Cedar valley forming sandy plains in 
the northwest part of the county. The Wisconsin drift is chiefly clayey 
till with pebbly clay loam soil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Mower County 

Square miles Per cent 

Old or pre-Wisconsin till, chiefly pebbly clay loam S9S 83.68 

Old gravel chiefly along valleys, gravelly loam 36 5.06 

Wisconsin till, chiefly pebbly clay loam 26 3.66 

Wisconsin gravel outwash and glacial drainage 42 5.91 

Rock, bare or with very scant cover, chiefly along valleys 12 1.69 

711 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Mower County from Census of igro 

Rural population 12,079 or 17 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 94.I 

Per cent of farm land improved 91.4 

Average acres per farm 179.6 

Average improved acres per farm 1 64. r 

Value of all farm property $31,290,093 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 54.3 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,231,403 

Cereals (oats, corn, barley, wheat, rye) $2,146,010 



FREEBORN COUNTY 135 

Farm and Crop Data for Mower County (Continued) 

Other grains and seeds $320,717 

Hay and forage* $526,5 1 7 

Vegetables $1 14,895 

Fruits and nuts $ 1 8,442 

All other crops $104,822 

•Tame grass, 91,891 tons; wild grass, 9,582 tons. 

FREEBORN COUNTY 

Freeborn County is on the southern border of the state, with Albert 
Lea as the county seat. It includes 20 townships or 720 square miles, 
with a land area of 700 square miles, the remaining 20 square miles being 
occupied by lakes.* The greater part of the county is drained southeast- 
ward to Cedar River, but the northwest part drains northwestward to 
the Minnesota River. A few prominent points on moraines rise above 
1,300 feet, but the general altitude is between 1,200 and 1,300 feet above 
sea level. 

This county was covered by the latest or Wisconsin glaciation, except 
a few square miles in the southeast corner township. The border there, 
however, is not strongly marked, and exposures of the drift are so shal- 
low that it is in places difficult to determine the full limits of the Wis- 
consin drift. The southeast comer of the county has the broad swales 
and somewhat mature erosion topography of the pre-Wisconsin drift. 

The Wisconsin drift is very thin for from 4 to 8 miles back from 
its limits. There a strong moraine appears whose trend is slightly west 
of south across the eastern part of the county. There are several subse- 
quent moraines of considerable strength traversing the county in the same 
general course. The city of Albert Lea lies between two such moraines, 
while another moraine passes east of Alden and Hartland. Two weak 
moraines cross the northwest part of the county, passing on each side of 
Freeborn Lake. 

There are extensive marshes in the eastern part of the county between 
the first and second strong moraine, one lying southeast of Geneva Lake, 
having an extent of at least 30 square miles. This seems to have been 
once an expansion of Geneva Lake, and its surface stands only a few 
feet above the present lake level. There are other marshes inclosed be- 
tween moraines in the northern part of the county and in till plains in the 
northwest part. 

The lakes at Albert Lea once had an altitude 45 feet higher than 
now, and were combined into a single large glacial lake that covered much 
of the present site of the city. The brickworks in the west part of the 
city use clay deposits laid down in this expanded lake. The lowering of 
the lake was due to the cutting down of its outlet along Shell Rock River. 

* The census of 1910 gives the county a land area of 735 square miles, which is evidently 

incorrect. 



136 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

An extensive outwash plain of light sandy gravel lies immediately 
north and west of Albert Lea along the eastern border of a strong moraine. 
Another extensive outwash plain of sandy gravel connected with the 
same moraine, covers much of the southwest township of the county. 
There are also outwash plains connected with preceding moraines extend- 
ing from the lakes to south of Glenville from which water discharged 
down Shell Rock valley. 

The moraines are composed largely of clayey till, but they all include 
a few gravelly knolls, and some of them have local development of coarse 
stony drift with stony loam soil. The till plains, which with their included 
marshy tracts, occupy about half the surface of the county, have usually 
a very rich pebbly clay loam soil. The marshes and wet land on the till 
plain have been already greatly reduced by ditching. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Freeborn County 

Square miles Per cent 

Pre-Wisconsin till plain, black clay loam 20 2.86 

Moraines of Wisconsin drift, chiefly pebbly clay loam soil 240 34-28 

Outwash plains of sandy gravel with sandy to sandy loam soil 60 8.57 

Till plains, chiefly pebbly clay loam 310 44.28 

Lake clays with cultivable land 2 0.28 

Marshes and bogs 68 9.70 

700 99.97 

Farm and Crop Data for Freeborn County from Census of igio 

Rural population 14,588 or 20 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms ^7-9 

Per cent of farm land improved 79.4 

Average acres per farm 167.0 

Average improved acres per farm 132.7 

Value of all farm property $27,961,397 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 60.6 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,074,017 

Cereals (corn, oats, wheat, barley, rye) $2,156,961 

Other grains and seeds $39,759 

Hay and forage* $603,96 1 

Vegetables $93,545 

Fruits and nuts $32,796 

All other crops $146,995 

* Tame grass, 76,345 tons; wild grass, 64,550 tons. 

FARIBAULT COUNTY 

Faribault County is located on the southern border of the state with 
Blue Earth as the county seat. The drainage is all northward through 
Blue Earth River and its tributaries to the Minnesota River at Mankato. 

The county is largely a till plain with an altitude above sea level of 
1,050 feet on the north border and 1,150 to 1,200 feet near the state line. 
There are, however, weak moraines traversing it, and a very prominent 
moraine known as the Kiester Hills occupying much of the southeast 
township. The highest points on these hills are nearly 1,400 feet. There 



MARTIN COUNTY 137 

are also sharp knolls and clusters of knolls in the southwest part of the 
county rising 50 to 75 feet above the plain. Smaller gravel knolls occur 
3 to 4 miles north of Bricelyn. 

Northeast of Bricelyn there is an old lake bed covering several square 
miles in which the till is coated to a depth of several feet with sand and 
silt deposits. It occupies a low plain northwest of the Kiester Hills. Bars 
and beaches of sandy gravel are found on parts of its shore. This lake 
seems to have been drained by cutting down of the valley of East Fork 
of Blue Earth River. It may be remarked in this connection that the 
flattest parts of the Blue Earth basin seem likely to have been partially 
submerged for some time after the ice sheet disappeared, for the drain- 
age development is likely to have been very slow. 

The till plain has a black clay loam soil, but the moraines have a large 
amount of gravelly and stony loam, as also do the knolls scattered over 
the plain. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Faribault County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly moraines and knolly drift, stony loam 25 3.47 

Clayey moraine, pebbly clay loam 66 9.18 

Till plain, chiefly black clay loam 600 83.45 

Lake beds near Bricelyn, sandy and silty loam 18 2.50 

Marshes and bogs including drained lakes 10 1.40 

719 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Faribault County from Census of igio 

Rural population 11,684 or 16.2 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 94.2 

Per cent of farm land improved 88.6 

Average acres per farm 202. 7 

Average improved acres per farm 179.6 

Value of all farm property $32,474,072 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 49.4 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,412,982 

Cereals (corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye) $2,775,679 

Other grains and seeds $24,188 

Hay and forage* $449,440 

Vegetables $80,674 

Fruits and nuts $32,360 

All other crops $50,641 

•Tame grass, 32,509 tons; wild grass, 59,235 tons. 

MARTIN COUNTY 

Martin County is located on the southern border of the state, with 
Fairmont as the county seat. Its area, including lakes, is about 723 
square miles. The lakes are estimated to cover 19 square miles.'' The 
greater part of the county is drained eastward to Blue Earth River, but 
the southwest part is drained southward into Iowa by an eastern tributary 

•The census of 1910 gives a land area of 719 square miles which is 15 square miles too high. 



138 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

of the Des Moines River. There are several chains of lakes in Martin 
County, which have been interpreted by Upham in his report on that 
county to mark the line of interglacial valleys, which have been irregu- 
larly filled by the deposits of the latest or Wisconsin till. The soil sepa- 
rating the Wisconsin till from the older till below it is to be seen in a 
few places along the blufifs of the lakes. 

The surface slopes gently from southwest to northeast, being about 
1,400 feet in the southwest corner, and about 1,050 feet in the northeast 
corner of the county. 

Three morainic belts traverse the county from northwest to southeast, 
which were formed on the southwest side of the Minnesota valley lobe 
of the Keewatin ice field. They are all rather diffuse knolly tracts with 
nearly plane areas inclosed among the knolls and ridges. The middle 
belt, which traverses the central part of the county, is spread over a width 
of 4 to 8 miles, and the others are generally 2 to 4 miles wide. Gravelly 
knolls are scattered along the moraine, and occur to some extent along 
the bordering till plain, but the moraines are generally of clayey till. 
The plains have a rich black clay loam soil, though a small area north- 
west of Ceylon has a sandy soil. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Martin County 

Square miles Per cent 

Gravelly knolls in moraines and elsewhere, stony loam 30 4.26 

Clay moraines with pebbly clay loam soil i75 24.86 

Till plain with black clay loam soil 470 66.76 

Gravelly and sandy soil on plains and valleys 20 2.84 

Wet land, marshy and boggy 9 1-28 

704 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Martin County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 11,453 or 16.3 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 93-o 

Per cent of farm land improved 88. i 

Average acres per farm 196. i 

Average improved acres per farm 1 72.8 

Value of all farm property $30,512,250 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 87.8 

Value of all crops in 1909 $3,155,826 

Cereals (oats, corn, wheat, barley, rye) $2,504,379 

Other grains and seeds $25,916 

Hay and forage* $458,496 

Vegetables $88,679 

Fruits and nuts $36,757 

All other crops $4'. 599 

• Tame grass, 49,845 tons; wild grass, 49,541 tons. 

JACKSON COUNTY 

Jackson County, of which Jackson is the county seat, is located on 
the southern border of the state. The land area is 702 square miles and 
the lake area about 20 square miles. Heron Lake, a body of water 12 



NOBLES COUNTY ' 139 

miles long, lies in the northwest quarter of the county. The drainage is 
largely by the Des Moines River, the outlet of Heron Lake being north- 
ward into the Des Moines. The east part of the county drains to the 
Minnesota River, while the southwest part is drained by Little Sioux 
River into the Missouri River drainage. 

A prominent moraine on the west side of the Des Moines runs north 
to south across the county and rises in places above 1,500 feet. A 
similar altitude above sea level is attained in the extreme southwest part 
of the county which is crossed by another moraine. There are two weak 
moraines east of the Des Moines, separated by a till plain about 6 miles 
wide. A more extensive till plain covers the western part of the county. 
The moraines are very largely of clayey till. The till plains have a rich 
black clay loam soil, and portions of the plains in the western part of 
the county have a thin deposit of silt over the till. 

A narrow gravelly strip follows the Des Moines valley for a few miles 
below Windom, but in the southern part of the county the Des Moines 
valley has bluffs of till to a height of nearly 100 feet above the stream. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Jackson County 

Square miles Per cent 

Moraines chiefly of clayey till, pebbly clay loam 260 37.04 

Gravelly morainic drift with stony loam soil 10 1.43 

Gravel in Des Moines valley 17 3.42 

Till plain, black clay loam 405 57.69 

Marshes and bogs 10 1.42 

702 99.99 

Farm and Crop Data for Jackson County from Census of igio 

Rural population 10,539 or 15 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 91.6 

Per cent of farm land improved 86.2 

Average acres per farm 215.8 

Average improved acres per farm 1 86. i 

Value of all farm property $26,357,716 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 86.4 

Value of all crops in 1 909 $2,750,726 

Cereals (corn, oats, barley, wheat, rye) $2,163,845 

Other grains and seeds $92,197 

Hay and forage* $392,087 

Vegetables $73,214 

Fruits and nuts $i9>574 

All other crops $9,809 

•Tame grass, 48,787 tons; wild grass, 46,386 tons. 

NOBLES COUNTY 

Nobles County is located on the south border of the state in south- 
western Minnesota, with Worthington as the county seat. The drainage 
of the northeast part is to the Des Moines River, but the southern and 
western parts drain southwestward across Iowa into the Big Sioux River, 
and thence to the Missouri. 



140 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

The county is crossed from northwest to southeast by the Coteau 
des Prairies, its crest passing between Worthington and Rushmore. 
Much of the crest stands above 1,700 feet, and part of it above 1,750 
feet, but its altitude at the state line is 1,650 feet above sea level. There 
is a gentle slope southwestward from the crest to about 1,450 feet in the 
southwest corner of the county. There is a similar slope to the north- 
east corner of the coimty, which also is about 1,450 feet. 

Two well-defined moraines which are separated by a narrow till plain 
I to 5 miles in width, traverse the high part of the Coteau des Prairies 
across the county. To the east of the eastern or inner moraine is a 
smooth till plain extending beyond the county limits into Jackson County. 
To the west of the western moraine a tract of very thin young or Wis- 
consin drift is found. The drift veneers the eroded surface of an older 
drift and the present drainage runs in about the same lines as that the 
interglacial valleys followed. 

The pre- Wisconsin or old gray drift, which is exposed in a narrow 
strip on the southwest edge of the county, contains there a large amount 
of gravel, and has a thin coating of silt some of which may be wind de- 
posited. A more typical deposit of silt or loess sets in a few miles 
farther west. The gravel in this old drift is much stained by iron and 
much more weathered in appearance than the Wisconsin drift. In places 
within the limits of the Wisconsin drift the old gravel has been gathered 
up and mixed with the fresh material of that drift. Good exposures of 
such an admixture are to be seen in Adrian and westward between the 
village and Kanaranzi Creek. The older till, though more deeply oxidized 
than the Wisconsin drift, shows only a slight depth of leaching of its 
calcareous material. A response with acid is usually obtained within two 
feet of the surface, whereas in drift of similar age in the southeast part 
of the state there has been leaching to a depth of 4 to 6 feet. The de- 
ficiency in rainfall is thought to be the main cause for the slight amount 
of leaching, as was noted in the general discussion. 

The moraines of Wisconsin drift are composed largely of clayey till, 
but parts of them are of coarse material with a slight loamy admixture, 
and there are also gravelly knolls. The till plains are of clayey char- 
acter, and in places have a coating of fine silt loam a few inches thick 
above the pebbly till. 

There are narrow strips of gravelly outwash connected with parts of 
the border of the prominent moraines of this county. The valleys also 
that lead southwest from the Coteau des Prairies generally are fringed 
with narrow gravelly strips. These seem to have been formed in part 
by glacial drainage, but are being worked over and redeposited by modern 
drainage lines. 




A. ZUMBRO VALLEY NEAR ROCHESTER 




B. VALLEY OK ROLLIi\(..STO.\ K RIVER XLAR MINNESUTA LliV 




C. MISSISSIPPI VALLEY AT MINNESOTA CITY 



ROCK COUNTY 141 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Nobles County 

Square miles Per cent 

Old or pre-VVisconsin drift, largely gravelly to stony loam 66 9.14 

Moraines of Wisconsin drift, chiefly pebbly clayey loam 120 16.62 

Wisconsin till plain, largely black clay loam 500 69.23 

Outwash and valley gravels, gravelly to stony loam 36 4.99 

722 100.00 

Farm and Crop Data for Nobles County from Census of igro 

Rural population 9,358 or 13 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 90-S 

Per cent of farm land improved 92.8 

Average acres per farm 229.9 

Average improved acres per farm 213-4 

Value of all farm property $30,066,799 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 106. i 

Value of all crops in 1909 $2,788,111 

Cereals (oats, com, barley, wheat, rye) $2,149,629 

Other grains and seeds $85,392 

Hay and forage* $436,346 

Vegetables $93,096 

Fruits and nuts $18,312 

All other crops $5,336 

* Tame grass, 56,284 tons; wild grass, 29,809 tons. 

ROCK COUNTY 

Rock County is the southwest corner county of the state, with Luverne 
as the county seat. The drainage is all southwestward to Big Sioux 
River. The highest land is a quartzite ridge that runs from near Luverne 
northward past Hard wick to Trosky, and which stands 1,650 to 1,750 
feet above sea level. The lowest land in the southwest part of the county 
is about 1,400 feet, but on the divide between the streams an altitude of 
1,500 feet is maintained nearly to the southern end of the county. 

The Wisconsin or young gray drift covers only a few square miles 
in the northeast township, and there it is a thin veneer on the eroded 
surface of the old gray till. In places it has a slight ridge at the border, 
such being the case for two or three miles from the north line of the 
county on the west bluff of Rock River, but usually the drift is only 
10 to 20 feet thick. There appears to have been a weak outwash from 
it down the tributaries of Rock River, as well as along Rock River itself. 

The old gray drift contains a large amount of gravelly material, but 
till is interbedded with the gravel and forms part of the surface. 

The southwest part of the county has a deposit of loess over the till 
several feet in depth, or enough to form the soil and subsoil. Elsewhere 
the cover of silt is thin and discontinuous. 

The eastern part of the county east of Rock River has a heavy drift 
deposit, but the northwest quarter is very thinly coated with drift, and 
small outcrops of quartzite are numerous. The old till of this county. 



142 SURFACE FORMATIONS OF MINNESOTA 

like that of Nobles County, is not deeply leached, but it shows high oxida- 
tion, and has been greatly eroded in its thick portions. 

Percentages of Classes of Land in Rock County 

Square miles Per cent 

Old drift with scanty silt cover, soil chiefly a sandy to gravelly loam 250 50.81 

Loess over old drift, silt loam 1 70 34.SS 

Nearly bare rock in old drift area 30 6.10 

Wisconsin till sheet, pebbly clay loam 18 3.66 

Wisconsin glacial drainage 24 4.88 

492 100.00 
Farm and Crop Data for Rock County from Census of 1910 

Rural population 6,495 or 13 per square mile 

Per cent of land area in farms 91.6 

Per cent of farm land improved 93-9 

Average acres per farm 239.3 

Average improved acres per farm 224.7 

Value of all farm property $25,297,625 

Per cent of increase 1900 to 1910 136.3 

Value of all crops in 1 909 $2,463,846 

Cereals (com, oats, barley, wheat, rye) $2,043,05 1 

Other grains and seeds $11,516 

Hay and forage* $315,685 

Vegetables $81,350 

Fruits and nuts $7.4i7 

All other crops $4,827 

•Tame grass, 38,791 tons; wild gjrass, 23,070 tons. 



INDEX 



Page 

Adrian, glacial drift near 140 

Afton, glacial drift near 89 

Agassiz, Lake....s, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 56, 
57. 58, 72, 73. 74. 76. 77. 
79, 88, 97, 98, 107, III, 112, 
130. '31 

Agricultural development since 1850 58-60 

Agriculture, Department of, University of 

Minnesota ' 4 

Aitken County 9, 12, 17, 49, 50, 64-65 

Aitken, glacial Lake 17 

Albert Lea, glacial formations near. .. 135, 136 

Alden, glacial moraine near 135 

Alexandria 72 

Alluvial bottoms 58 

Altitude of Minnesota 6 

map 8 

Altitude of south half of Minnesota 45 

Amboy, glacial formations near 123 

Annandale, outwash plains near 55 

Anoka 82, 86 

Anoka County 9, 53, 60, 86-87 

Appleton, glaciation near 55 

Area of Minnesota 5 

Arthyde 65 

Austin 133 

limestone near 21 

Barley 60, 1 08 

Battle Lake, outwash plain near 72 

Beardsley, moraine near 77 

Beaver dams 63 

Becker County 6, 9 

crop-growing season 31 

Belle Plaine prairie 104 

Benton County 49, 50, 82-83 

Benton, Lake 116,118 

Beroun, swamps near 63 

Big Sioux River 116, 117, 119, 139, 141 

Big Stone County 57, 77-78 

Big Stone Lake 10, 57, 58, 76, 77 

Blue Earth 136 

Blue Earth County 55, 122-24 

Blue Earth River 136, 137 

Bois des Sioux River 57, 74, 75, 76 

Braham, glaciation near 65 

Brainerd, glaciation near i 7, 67 

Bricelyn, glacial lake features near 137 

Brown County 55.113-14 

Brown Valley, glacial lake features near. . 16 

Bruno, swamps near 63 

Buffalo 92 

Butters, Frederic K., map prepared by... 20 

Caledonia, loess near 131 

Cambridge 85 

Cannon River 105, 106, 107, 109 

III, 123, 124, 125 

Carlton County 14, 16 

Carrington loam 107, 109, 1 10 

Carver County 49, 53, 55, 60, 102-3 



Page 

Cass County 9, 50, 68 

glacial lake features 16 

Cedar River 125, 126, 133, 134, 135 

Center City 87 

Cereals, acreage 60 

Chanarambrie Creek 119 

Chandler, glacial features near -52, 119 

Chaska : 02 

Chippewa County 55.97 

Chippewa River 57, 72, 7$, 78, 79, 80, 96 

Chisago County 9, 53, 58, 87-88 

Christina Lake 72 

Classification of land. See Land Classi- 
fication 

Clear Lake, moraine near 112 

Clearwater County 9 

crop-growing season 31 

Clearwater River 7. 55 

Climate, continental 23-24 

Climatic conditions of Minnesota 23-44 

Cold Spring, moraine near Si. 81 

Cook County 6 

Corn 60 

Cortland, moraine near 112 

Coteau des Prairies 6, 52, 98, 115, 116 

117, 118, 1 19, 120. 140 

Cottonwood County 52, 55, izo-21 

Cottonwood River 113, 114, 115 

Cretaceous deposits 115 

Crookston, glacial lake features near 16 

Crop-growing season 3 

length 31, 34 

temperature 26 

Crow River 5 5, 80, 81, 93, 95, 100, loi, 102 

Crow Wing County 67-68 

glacial lake features 17 

Crow Wing River 16, 68, 70, 72 

Dakota County 12, 47, 49. 104- 106 

Darling Station, esker near 69 

Darwin, outwash plain near 55.93 

Deerhorn Creek 74 

Des Moines lobe loi 

Des Moines River 119, 120, 121, 138, 139 

Dodge County 15, 46, 47, 126-27 

agricultural conditions 60 

Douglas County 5i, 54. 55. 72-73 

Drainage, dendritic 106 

Drainage, importance 18 

Drainage of Minnesota 6-7 

Drainage of south half of Minnesota 43 

Drift 9, 12, 14, 53-142 

Illinoian 4?-;o 

lowan 47-43 

"Kansan 47, 48-49 

Labradorian so 

old gray 47 

old red 48-49 

Patrician 49"o 

pre- Wisconsin 46-47 



144 



INDEX 



Pagt 
Drift (continued) 

Wisconsin red 49-50 

young gray So-32 

young red 49-3° 

Driftless area a, 10, 18, 4S-46 

Dulath, settlement S9-6o 

DuJuth, Lake 14, 16, 17, 63, 88 

Duluth, rainy days 41 

Dune sands 33-S4. 69, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88 

Eden Valley, moraines near 54, 35 

Elbow Lake 73 

Elk River 82, 84 

Elysian, glacial featores near iii, 123 

Elysian, Lake 124 

Embarrass River, glacial features near.... 16 

Erosion 47 

ia prairie and forest 19 

Eskers 49, 69, 83 

Fairmont 137 

Fargo loam 110, 123 

Faribault 109 

Faribault County 33, 136-37 

Farmington, loess deposit near 106 

Feldspar, weathering 19 

Fergus Falls 71 

Fillmore County 13, 46, 132-33 

Fires, forest 

effect on soU 21-22 

Hinckley fire 32, 63 

Foley, esker near 83 

Forest and prairie, map showing 20 

Forest City, glacial lake formation 94 

Forest fires. See Fires 

Forested areas, settlement 60 

Fort Ripley, dune sand near 69 

Foxhome, soil near 75 

Freeborn County 53, 60, 133-36 

Freeborn Lake 135 

Fremont, soil near 130 

Frosts, killing, average date of first and 

last 31. 3^. 33 

Fruit-growing 89 

Gaylord 101 

Geneva Lake 135 

Geological Survey. See Minnesota Geo- 
logical Survey and L'nited 
States Geological Sorvey 

Geology, surface 10-18 

Glacial deposits 12 

See also Drift 

Glacial lakes 16-18 

Glencoe loi 

Glenville, outwash plain near 136 

Glenwood 79 

Goodhue Covmty 13, 46, 47, 49, 60, 106-9 

Granger, quartz formations near 132 

Granite Falls, formations near 97 

Granite outcrops 83, 97, 98, 100 

Grant County 57, 73-74 

Grantsburg lobe 

53, 34, 53, 63, 81, 84, 85, 87, 92. loi 



Page 

Gray Eagle, moraines near 70 

Green Lake, moraines near 93 

Hadley, moraine near tig 

Hampton, red drift near 103 

Hanley Falls, drainage near 56 

Hardwick, quartzite ridge 141 

Harris 87 

Hartland, moraines near 133 

Hastings 1 04 

Hay £0, 89 

Hennepin Coiinty 9, 49, 53, 35, 58, 60, 91-92 

Heron Lake 138-39 

Hinckley forest fire 22, 63 

Houston County 2, 12, 46, 60, 131-32 

Hubbard County 9 

crop-growing season 31 

glacial features 16 

Hudson Bay drainage system 6-7 

Humidity, mean relative 43 

Huron, glacial lake 17 

Illinoian drift 48-49 

Improved land 61 

Interglacial valleys,. .66, 69, 71, 74,78, 79,83, 119 

lowan drift 47-48 

Isanti County 9, S3. 85-86 

Itasca County 9, 16 

Jackson County 32, 121, 1 38-39 

Kanabec County 49, 63-66 

Kanaranzi Creek 140 

Kandiyohi County 34, SSi 80, 94, 93-96 

highest temperature in 26 

Kansan drift 46-47, 103 

Keewatin ice sheet 9, 12, 13, 17, 49, 53-142 

Kettle River 3°, 63 

Kiester Hills 136, 137 

Kimball, moraines near 34, 33, 81 

Kingston, glacial lake features near 53,94 

Klossner, moraines near 113 

Knox silt 107 

Koochiching County 1 6, 22 

Labrador ice sheet 15, 49, 30 

Lac qui Parle 58 

Lac qui Parle County 5 5 . 98 

Lac qui Parle River 98 

Lake City, glacial drift near 128 

Lake deposits 14 

Lake of the Woods S, 16 

Lakeland, glacial deposits near 58 

Lakes, glacial 16-18 

Lakes of Minnesota 13 

area 7 

Land classification S3-142 

Leaching 19, 46, 103, 107, 132, 134, 140 

Leaf Hills 6, 72 

Leaf Mountain 72 

Leech Lake 7 

Leech Lake Dam, climate 26, 40 

Le Sueur Center 11 1 

Le Sueur Cotinty 33,111-12 

Le Sueur River 124 

Limestone, leaching. See Leaching 



n:DEx 



us 



Pa»6 



L--.- 




53 

;^-53 



Seesct CcTEty 

asr-^-.-i 



- 45 

41 

. .69, 70, *3, 85 
45, 8^^o 

»S 



sS, ^9, 5^ 65-rs 

Sg 

..»5, 47. 133-3: 



Sid Lsjs 2iTs=-. 



z6 

7 



■S6^7 



146 



INDEX 



Page 
Red River. . .6,7, 9, 14, 18, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78 

Red Wing, altitude 106, 107 

Redwood County 55, 114-15 

Redwood Falls, granite outcrops near 115 

Redwood River 56,114-15 

Relief of Minnesota 6 

Renville County 55, 95, 100 

Residuary material 11 

Rice County 47,53,109-11 

Rochester 127 

Rock County 15,46,52,118,141-42 

Ronnely, esker near 83 

Root River 126,127,131,132,133 

Round Prairie, gravel plains near 70 

Royalton, dune sand near 69 

Rum River 65, 66, 82, 84, 85 

Russell, gravel knolls near 116 



Rye 



60 



St. Anthony Falls 91 

St. Charles, loess near 130 

St. Cloud, red drift near 81 

St. Croix River. ..7, 12, 17, 50, 53i 58, 63, 81, 87 

St. Croix, Lake 58 

St. Francis River 84 

St. James, soil near 122 

St. Lawrence, Gulf of, drainage system... 6-7 

St. Louis County 16, 22 

St. Louis River 7,9, 11, 15 

St. Paul 54, 89, 90 

St. Peter, glacial drift near 112 

St. Peter sandstone 109 

Sand dunes 53, 54, 6g, 83, 86 

Sand, wind-blown 11 

Sandstone outcrops 10 

Sauk Center, moraine near 51 

Sauk Rapids, granite outcrops near 83 

Sauk River 51.55,70,80,81,93 

Savage, dune sand near 104 

Sawtooth Range 6 

Scott County 49, 58, 103-4 

Settlement of Minnesota 

59-60, 104-5, 106. 129, 133 

Shakopee prairie 104 

Sherburne County 53, 60, 82, 84-85 

Shetek, Lake 120 

Sibley County 55, 101-2 

Sink holes 134 

Sioux loam 1 1 1 

Sioux River 1:7 

Slayton 119 

Snake River 65 

Snowfall 40, 41 

Soil 

See also Land classification 

central Minnesota 55 

definition i 

Minnesota 18-22 

outwash plains 57-s8 

southeastern Minnesota 53, 54 

southwestern Minnesota 53 

survey 58 



Page 

Soils, Bureau of, referred to 

107, 108, 109, 110,123 

Soils, Division of. University of Minne- 
sota 4 

South Haven, outwash plains near 55 

Stearns County 49, 51, 55, 80, 81-82, 94, 95 

Steele County 53, 125-26 

Stevens County 57, 78-79 

Stillwater 21, 58, 88 

Straight River 125 

Striations, glacial 47 

Sturgeon Lake 5» 

Sunrise River 87 

Superior, Lake 6, 7, 14, 15 

influence on climate 23,31,44 

Superior lobe 50, 63, 65 

Survey, soil 

See Soil Survey and Land classifica- 
tion 

Swamps 3, 63, 64-65, 75, 93, 94 

drainage 7, 60 

Swan River 70 

Swift County S4i 55. 57, 79, 96-97 

Temperatures 

average seasonal 31 

highest known 26, 29 

mean annual 25 

mean January 26, 27 

mean July 26, 28 

monthly and annual mean 26 

Till plains 5,12,18,53,63-142 

Tintah, swamps near 75 

Tintah beach 76 

Todd County 16,49,30,51,70-71,73 

Topeka, eskers near 69 

Topography of Minnesota 5 

Traverse County 57, 75-77 

Traverse, Lake 16, 73, 75, 76 

Trosky 141 

Truck gardening 92 

United States Bureau of Soils 4 

United States Geological Survey 3-4 

United States Weather Bureau 4,24 

Upham, glacial Lake 17 

Upham, Warren, referred to. . .4, 17, 20, 52, 138 

Upper Iowa River 131,132,133,134 

Vermilion Iron Range, crop-growing sea- 
son 31 

Vermilion River 103, 105 

Wabash silt loam 1 08 

Wabasha 128 

Wabasha County 15,46,60, 1 28-29 

Wadena County 16, 50, 51 

Wadena, glacial Lake 16 

Waseca County 53, 124-25 

Washington County 49, 88-89 

Watab, granite outcrops 83 

Watkins, young gray drift 54 

Watonwan County 55, 56, 121-23 

Watonwan River 113,121,123 

Waukesha loam 108 



INDEX 



147 



Page 
Weather Bureau. See United States 
Weather Bureau 

Weathering 19 

West Rum River 83 

Wheat 59, 60, 108 

Wheaton 75 

White Bear Lake 88 

Whitewater River 127 

Wilkin County 57, 74-7S 

Willmar County 95 

Winchell, N. H., referred to 4.17 

Windom 1 20, 1 39 

Winds, prevailing 40, 42 

Wind deposits 11-12 



Page 

Winnibigoshish, Lake 7 

Winona County 2, 12, 15, 46, 129-31 

Wisconsin drift... 51, 63-64, 66, 69, 70, 71, 
88, 106, 108, 109, 118, 119, 
126, 131, 134, 13s, 138, 140, 141 

Worthington 139, 140 

Wright County 9, 49, 53, 54, 55, 60, 92-93. 94 

Yellow Bank River 98 

Yellow Medicine County 52,55,56,99 

Yellow Medicine River 56 

Zumbro River 106, 

107, 109, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129 
Zumbrota, glacial drift near 107 






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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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